Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo
Maha Dhamma Yaza မဟာဓမ္မရာဇာ မင်းရဲသီဟသူ Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo | |
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Theravada Buddhism |
Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo (
He was
He spent his last years rebuilding the city of Toungoo and other war ravaged regions around his kingdom. But he also saw his kingdom increasingly boxed in by the Portuguese from the south and Ava (Inwa) from the north. He died a year before Ava took over Toungoo.
Background
Minye Thihathu was the eldest child of Viceroy
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Early career
Governor of Tharrawaddy (c. 1564–74)
Although chronicles provide no details on his early life, the young prince apparently made an impression on his uncle the king. When he was about 14, he was appointed governor of
His army participated in the capture of
At age 20, he was married to his half-cousin Min Khin Saw, daughter of Bayinnaung by Queen Sanda Dewi on 1 May 1571.[7]
Heir-apparent of Toungoo (1574–84)
In 1574, he returned to his native Toungoo, and became the heir-apparent there. He participated in two more military campaigns in the remaining years of Bayinnaung. He led an army in the 1575–76 campaign against a rebellion in the northern
He returned to a deceptively calm country, which then was "probably the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia"[10] and an "absurdly overextended empire".[11] The transfer of power had gone smoothly; all key major vassal rulers, who ruled what until recently used to be sovereign kingdoms, initially pledged allegiance to the new king, while adopting a wait-and-see attitude.[12][13] For his part, Nanda did not trust his vassals especially his own kinsmen Minkhaung II of Toungoo and Thado Minsaw of Ava. When Thado Minsaw revolted in 1583–84, Minkhaung sided with Nanda, who suppressed the rebellion in April 1584.[14]
Viceroy of Toungoo (1584–97)
Nominal vassal
Minkhaung's support of Nanda was crucial in his son succeeding him as viceroy. Less than two months after the Ava campaign, in June 1584, Minkhaung died.[1] Nanda agreed to Minye Kyawhtin's accession, granting him the title Minye Thihathu, King of Toungoo, the same style used by their grandfather Mingyi Swe. For his part, Minye Thihathu II pledged loyalty to his half-cousin, and brother-in-law.[1]
However, he and other vassal rulers were only nominally loyal to the high king. They used Nanda's preoccupation with Siam, which revolted in May 1584, to gain greater autonomy for themselves, only contributing nominally to the war effort. In all, Minye Thihathu went to the front only in the 1586–87 invasion of Siam, contributing just two regiments (2000 men).[15] He sent a single regiment each in the 1590–91[16] and 1592–93 invasions.[17] He provided no support in suppressing the 1590–92 rebellion in Mogaung (present-day Kachin State).[18]
In defense of Lower Burma (1594–95)
The period of relative autonomy ended in 1593. By then, all
But he was soon asked for help again by Nanda. In December 1594, a 12,000-strong Siamese army led by King Naresuan laid siege to Pegu.[20] Nanda had not expected an invasion of Pegu itself, and in desperation asked Prome, Toungoo and Lan Na for help. Minye Thihathu was in no hurry. Since he could not break the siege on his own in any case, he reinforced his city's defenses while he waited for the troops from Lan Na to arrive. It was only in March that he left with his army alongside Lan Na troops for Pegu. He left his eldest son Natshinnaung in charge of the fortified city.[20]
The combined Toungoo and Lan Na armies broke the four-month-old siege, and drove back the Siamese army on 6 April [O.S. 27 March] 1595.[21] Meanwhile, Prome forces led by Thado Dhamma Yaza III of Prome, instead of breaking the siege at Pegu, revolted against his father Nanda, and marched to Toungoo in a brazen attempt to consolidate central Burma. The Prome army laid siege to Toungoo for two weeks, and retreated only after Minye Thihathu rushed back with his army.[20]
Break from Pegu
By then, everyone was out entirely for himself.
King of Toungoo (1597–1609)
Conquest of Pegu (1598–99)
Nanda was in a free fall. Over the next year, his power further deteriorated in the two remaining regions he still ruled: the Pegu province and the
In March 1598,
The victors divided the enormous wealth of Pegu, accumulated over the past 60 years as the capital of Toungoo Empire. The gold, silver and precious stones were equally divided. The Arakanese share included several brazen cannon, 30 Khmer bronze statues, and a white elephant. Toungoo got the Tooth relic and Alms Bowl of Ceylon and other sacred religious artifacts. Toungoo's share of the loot alone totaled more than a dozen caravans, each consisting of 700 elephants and horses.[30][34] Meanwhile, they received the news that King Naresuan and his army were marching toward Lower Burma. While he planned to hold Lower Burma, Minye Thihathu's first priority was to get the loot to the secure confines of Toungoo. On 15 February [O.S. 5 February] 1600,[note 4] he and his army returned with their loot to Toungoo, leaving the Arakanese in charge of the city. The Arakanese army methodically stripped the palace and the city of whatever remaining treasures, and set fire to the city. The Kanbawzathadi Palace and the city of Pegu, rebuilt by Bayinnaung in 1565–68 was burned down. The Arakanese then left for Syriam, and shipped the loot off to Mrauk-U.[34] The Toungoo Empire, "the most adventurous and militarily successful in the country's history", ceased to exist.[35][36]
Nareusan and his army arrived at Pegu on 23 February [O.S. 13 February] 1600,[note 5] only to find a smoldering deserted city. Without realizing that the Arakanese forces were still in Syriam to the south, he marched north.
Siamese invasion of Lower Burma (1600)
Minye Thihathu and his army arrived back at Toungoo on 3 March [O.S. 22 February] 1600.[37] Naresuan and the Siamese army arrived a few weeks later, and laid siege to the city. The Siamese troops tried to drain the city's moats by building a channel to the Paunglaung river. But the ambitious plan was cut short when their supplies stopped coming. The Arakanese forces, which Naresuan had not counted on remaining in Lower Burma, had been cutting off Siamese supply lines, and had returned to Pegu. Faced with the possibility of being encircled, Naresuan called off the siege on 6 May [O.S. 26 April] 1600,[note 6] and made a break for the border.[30][34] But he had to go through a gauntlet of Arakanese ambushes, and took heavy losses before reaching the border. Still, Nareusan had successfully extended his control to the entire Tenasserim coast to Martaban (Mottama).[30][34]
Sharing control of Lower Burma with Arakan
With the Siamese threat still so close, Minye Thihathu agreed to holding Lower Burma together with Arakan. He may not have had a choice in the matter especially since it was the Arakanese that primarily defeated the Siamese invasion. In a key concession, he agreed to Arakanese control of Syriam, the main port of Lower Burma in exchange for a share of the tax revenue from the port.[38] In June 1600,[39] King Raza appointed a Portuguese captain named Filipe de Brito e Nicote[note 7] in his service as governor, and left a garrison consisted mainly of foreign mercenaries.[38]
Despite his dependence on Syriam's revenues, Minye Thihathu did nothing when other rulers tried to take over the port. In 1601, the Syriam garrison repulsed two separate attacks by Yan Naing, the lord of Prome, and Binnya Law, a Mon lord. Later in the year, the garrison came under siege by Binnya Dala, the Siamese appointed viceroy of Martaban, for seven months until May 1602.[40] Binnya Dala then made peace with De Brito in a marriage of alliance between his daughter and De Brito's son Simon.[38][41] All the while, Minye Thihathu kept a series of garrisons near Syriam and Martaban to prevent the warfare from spilling over but nothing else.[42] By then, even the authority of the Arakanese king over the Portuguese led garrison was nominal. De Brito had been in contact with Aires de Saldanha, Viceroy of Goa, to make Syriam a Portuguese colony.[40]
Coronation
On 21 March [O.S. 11 March] 1603,[43] Minye Thihathu was crowned king with the title of Maha Dhamma Yaza (မဟာဓမ္မရာဇာ) while his chief queen took the title of Atula Agga Maha Dewi (အတုလအဂ္ဂ မဟာဒေဝီ). His eldest son Natshinnaung was made heir-apparent. He also give his eldest younger brother the title Thado Dhamma Yaza (သတိုးဓမ္မရာဇာ), the style of rulers of Prome, indicating that he had designs on Prome, the kingdom to his west.[42]
Loss of Lower Burma ports
His designs on Prome would have to wait. C. March/April 1603,[note 8] the Portuguese at Syriam declared their allegiance to the Portuguese Empire, and renounced ties to both Arakan and Toungoo.[44][45]
In response, Toungoo and Arakan launched a joint attack on Syriam in the dry season of 1603–04. Minye Thihathu himself led the Toungoo army.[45] But the Arakanese navy, consisted of a hundred ships and over a hundred war boats, was defeated by a few Portuguese warships near Cape Negrais, and their commander Crown Prince Min Khamaung was captured.[44][45] The Arakanese king himself followed up with another 300-boat navy, and with the Toungoo forces jointly laid siege to the city. But Syriam defenses held. In the following negotiations, in 1604, the Arakanese agreed to a ransom of 50,000 ducats for the release of the crown prince, and to Syriam's status as a Portuguese colony.[44][46]
Final years (1604–09)
In his last years, Minye Thihathu saw his kingdom increasingly squeezed by a resurgent Ava and a powerful Portuguese Syriam. The Portuguese takeover of Syriam (along with the Arakanese withdrawal) essentially ended Toungoo's hold over Lower Burma. In the following years, the Portuguese projected their power throughout the delta, and gained the allegiance of delta lords. Toungoo's borders were pushed back to Pegu, and the kingdom was now completely landlocked. The loss of maritime trade and revenue from the seaports adversely affected Toungoo's economy. In later years, even the Pegu border was routinely breached by the Portuguese. Chronicles state that Minye Thihathu's troops were powerless to stop the Portuguese looting the relic chambers of the Buddhist pagodas around Pegu.[47][48]
Meanwhile in the north, King Anaukpetlun, following the work begun by his father King Nyaungyan, had reunified Upper Burma and cis-Salween Shan States by 1606, and captured Prome in 1608.[49]
Toungoo was next. But Minye Thihathu did not live to see the showdown. He died on 11 August [O.S. 1 August] 1609[note 9] in Toungoo. He was succeeded by Natshinnaung.[48]
Administration
After the Siamese invasion, he launched a major construction works program to rebuild the city of Toungoo and war ravaged areas around the city. He resettled people into his rebuilt city. The present-day quarters of Yodaya Dan ("Siamese Quarter"), Pabedan ("Blacksmith Quarter"), "Taik Tan" (formerly, Kye-Taik Tan, "Revenue Building Quarter") date from his time.[50]
List of military campaigns
Campaign | Duration | Troops commanded | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Lan Na and Lan Xang | 1564–65 | 12,000 men, 600 horses, 50 elephants | Led the Fifth Army, based out of northern Siam, and mainly consisted of Siamese troops. The Siamese regiments were led by their own lords including Setthathirat.[51]
|
Siam
|
1568–69 | 5000 men, 500 horses, 50 elephants | Led the Fifth Army, consisted of regiments from Lan Na and Keng Tung.[5] |
Lan Xang | 1569–70 | 5 regiments | Led the Fifth Army, now part of the Southern Army Group. Invaded Lan Xang via Phitsanulok. Recaptured Vientiane but still could not catch Setthathirat who remained active in the countryside.[6] |
Mohnyin and Mogaung | 1575–76 | 9 regiments | Led an army (part of a 22,000-strong army group) to put down a rebellion the two Shan states[8] |
Arakan | 1581 | 11,000 | Led one of two armies that reinforced Toungoo troops in Arakan (Rakhine). Invaded via the Taungup Pass.[9] |
Siam | 1586–87 | 2 regiments | Led two regiments from Toungoo.[15] |
Siam | 1590–91 | 1 regiment | Sent one regiment led by his brother Prince of Kawliya[16] |
Siam | 1592–93 | 1 regiment | Sent one regiments led by his eldest son Natshinnaung[17] |
Moulmein (Mawlamyaing) | 1594–95 | 8,000 | Led the 8000-strong army, charged with putting down a rebellion in Moulmein (Mawlamyaing). Toungoo supplied a single regiment, however. Driven back by Siamese troops.[17]
|
Pegu | 1598–99 | 5000 | Led the Toungoo army in a joint operation with Mrauk-U (Arakan)[33] |
Siamese siege of Toungoo | 1600 | unspecified | Led the defense of the city. |
Syriam | 1603–04 | 5000 men, 300 horses, 30 elephants | Led the Toungoo army in a joint operation with Mrauk-U (Arakan)[44][46] |
Notes
- ^ Inferred from chronicle reporting, his birth date was one of the following: 30 July 1550 (Full moon of Wagaung 912 ME), 6 August 1550 (7th waning of Wagaung 912), or 13 August 1550 (14th waning of Wagaung 912). Chronicles (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 108) and (Hmannan Vol. 3 2003: 114) say that he commissioned a new palace at age 52 years and 3 months (3 months into 53rd year), and occupied the new palace at 52 years and 7 months (7 months into 53rd year). According to (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 104), he commissioned a new palace at his coronation ceremony on 8th waxing of Nadaw 964 ME (21 November 1602) and entered the new palace on 10th waxing of Late Tagu 964 ME (21 March 1603). It means he was born on or after 11th waxing of Wagaung 912 (24 July 1550) and on or before 8th waxing of Tawthalin 912 ME (19 August 1550). But since he was a Wednesday born, he was born on 30 July, 6 August or 13 August 1550.
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 268–272): Governors of Phitsanulok, Sukhothai and Sawankhalok initially, briefly fought against Bayinnaung's invasion forces in 1563 before joining them. They participated in Bayinnaung's subsequent capture of Ayutthaya in February 1564.
- ^ Chronicles say Nyaungyan never formally declared independence but surviving royal orders by Nyaungyan indicate that he did. (Than Tun Vol. 2 1985: 11): Nyaungyan without Nanda's permission declared that Ava would be his capital on 19 April 1597. (Than Tun Vol. 1 1983: 18–19): On 14 November 1598 (1st waning of Tazaungmon 960 ME), Nyaungyan declared the extent of his kingdom as the Toungoo Empire at its peak.
(Stuart-Fox 2008: 38): Lan Xang did not officially renounce tributary ties to Burma until 1603. - ^ Date per Hmannan Yazawin chronicle (Hmannan Vol. 3 2003: 103): 2nd waxing of Tabaung 961 ME = 15 February 1600. Maha Yazawin gives 8th waxing of Tabaung 961 ME (21 February 1600 NS).
- ^ (Damrong 2001: 162) says Naresusan arrived at Pegu on the 10th waxing day of Fourth Siamese month, eight days after the viceroy of Toungoo left. But the editor (Chris Baker) or the translator (Aung Thein) inserted/translated the Fourth Siamese month as April. When Damrong wrote it in the 1920s, the Siamese calendar had not changed to the present day form: The First Siamese month was Mikkhasira (มิคสิร), not January as mandated in 1941. Thus, the Fourth Siamese month in Damrong's time would still have been (Phakkhun, ผัคคุณ), which is equivalent to the Burmese month Tabaung. And since Hmannan says Minye Thihathu left Pegu on 2nd waxing of Tabaung, and since Naresuan arrived eight days later, Naresuan arrived on 10th waxing of Phakkhun/Tabaung 961 ME.
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 101) and (Hmannan Vol. 3 2003: 105): Saturday, 10th waning of Kason 962 ME = 6 May 1600.
- ^ The standard chronicles give the name as Nga Zinga. Mainstream (Western) scholarship identifies Nga Zinga as Filipe de Brito e Nicote. But per (Than Tun 2011: 128–141), Pawtugi Yazawin, the history of the Portuguese written by their descendants, says De Brito was neither Nga Zinga nor governor of Syriam.
- ^ (Than Tun 2011: 135): De Brito was appointed governor of Syriam by the viceroy of Goa, and left Goa in March 1603. He probably got back to Syriam in March or April 1603.
- ^ Chronicles (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 108) and (Hmannan Vol. 3 2003: 114) say that he died on Tuesday, 15th waxing of Wagaung 971 ME, which translates to Saturday, 15 August 1609. But 15th waxing is a typographical error. First, it is uncommon to state "15th waxing" instead of "full moon". Secondly, the chronicles say that Natshinnaung's coronation ceremony was held on Friday, 6th waning of Wagaung 971 ME, which translates to Friday, 21 August 1609. It means the last possible Tuesday in the waxing part of the month the king could have died on was 11th waxing, which was Tuesday, 11 August 1609 NS. The Burmese numerals 1 (၁) and 5 (၅) are quite similar when written longhand.
References
- ^ a b c d Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 83
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 277
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 276–278
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 289–292
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 310
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 328–335
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 336): Saturday, 7th waxing of Nayon 933 ME = Tuesday, 1 May 1570
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 46
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 74–75
- ^ Lieberman 2003: 152
- ^ Lieberman 2003: 154–155
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 77–78
- ^ Aung-Thwin & Aung-Thwin 2012: 137
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 81–82
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 86
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 90
- ^ a b c Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 93
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 90–92
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 95
- ^ a b c d e Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 95–96
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 96
- ^ a b Harvey 1925: 182
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 97
- ^ Htin Aung 1967: 132
- ^ Harvey 1925: 168, 183, 268
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 98
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 98): Late Tagu 959 ME = 8 March 1598 to 5 April 1598 NS
- ^ (Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 77): Tuesday, 11th waxing of Tazaungmon 960 ME = 10 November 1598 NS
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 98): Tabaung 960 ME = 24 February 1599 to 26 March 1599 NS
- ^ a b c d Harvey 1925: 182–183
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 99
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 100): Sunday, 4th waxing of Pyatho 961 ME = 19 December 1599 NS.
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 100
- ^ a b c d Htin Aung 1967: 133–134
- ^ Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 138
- ^ Lieberman 2003: 156
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 100): 5th waning of Tabaung 961 ME = 3 March 1600 NS
- ^ a b c Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 104
- ^ Than Tun 2011: 135
- ^ a b Than Tun 2011: 134
- ^ Than Tun 2011: 136
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 105
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 105): Friday, 10th waxing of Late Tagu 964 ME = 21 March 1603 NS
- ^ a b c d Phayre 1967: 126
- ^ a b c Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 106
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 107
- ^ Phayre 1967: 127
- ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 108
- ^ Phayre 1967: 127–128
- ^ Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 318–319
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 285–292
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