War of 1912
This article may be a rough translation from Spanish. It may have been generated, in whole or in part, by a computer or by a translator without dual proficiency. (April 2023) |
War of 1912 | |
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Part of the Cuba | |
Result |
Rebellion suppressed
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United States
Lincoln Karmany
Pedro Ivonnet †
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The War of 1912 (
Background
Social conditions
Conditions in Cuba were poor for the black inhabitants, most of whom worked in the sugarcane industry. Evaristo Estenoz began a movement in 1895 to better these conditions, during the war for independence from Spain. Veterans of that war, primarily the officers, organized the Independent Party of Color in 1908. Under the leadership of Estenoz, the party quickly gained the support of a large number of Afro-Cubans in opposition to Cuban President José Miguel Gómez. Gómez ordered the party disbanded under the Morúa law, which outlawed political parties based on race.[7] By 1912 the Independent Party of Color had regrouped to stage another rebellion.
US Marines in Cuba
In early 1912, the United States government sent a detachment of 688
History
Beginning
On 20 May, Estenoz and his men confronted the
Cuban official response
The Cuban government and press responded with a very racist demonization of the rebels. The Cuban President called on the Cuban people to fight for "civilization" against "ferocious savagery". The President also invoked the image of a "raped teacher" which turned out to be from a fake news story from a conservative newspaper. The conservative newspaper "El Dia" argued that Cuba should copy Jim Crow Laws in the United States where "blacks are mistreated and society is segregated" concluding that "dominated races do submit". Afro-Cuban politicians became worried and angered over the escalation of racism during the rebellion. The racial demagoguery angered Juan Gualberto Gomez, former Cuban independence leader, so much that he published a manifesto condemning it.[10]
Arrival of United States forces
The 2nd Provisional Regiment of Marines with 1,292 officers and men under Colonel James E. Mahoney was also en route. Most arrived at Guantanamo Bay on 7 June, while one battalion landed at
Suppression
The Marines were assigned to protect the American-owned sugarcane plantations and their associated properties, as well as copper mines, railroads and trains. The Afro-Cubans attacked the Marines only once, at El Cuero, but were repulsed without casualties on either side.[9] President Gómez offered amnesty to any of the rebels who surrendered by 22 June, but Estenoz continued to fight with a few hundred men, though most of the rebels surrendered. By the end of June, the majority had returned to their homes. Estenoz was killed by government forces who shot him in the back of the head at Miraca on 27 June.[2][9][11][12][10]
Estenoz's death splintered the rebel army into small factions which were soon defeated. The most important faction was that of Pedro Ivonnet, who led his forces into the mountains to wage a
Aftermath
Following Ivonnet's surrender, Gómez announced that the American Marines were no longer needed and they began to withdraw, first to the naval base at Guantanamo and then to stations in the United States. The last Marines to leave Cuba embarked on the USS Prairie on 2 August. The Afro-Cubans suffered between 3,000 and 6,000 casualties, both combatants and non-combatants, and the results of the rebellion were disastrous. The Independent Party of Color was dissolved and conditions in Cuba remained unchanged.[2][9]
References
- ^ Ferrer, A. (2022). Cuba: An American history. Scribner.
- ^ a b c ""Cuba 1912: La masacre racista", AfroCubaWeb". Afrocubaweb.com. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
- ^ "Partido de Independiente de Color (Cuba, 1908–1912): The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed". BlackPast. 18 February 2009. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
- ^ "Cuba 1912: La masacre racista". AfroCubaWeb. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
- ^ Brock, Lisa (1994). "Back to the Future: African-Americans and Cuba in the Time(s) of Race". Contributions in Black Studies. 12 (3): 9–32.
- ^ Castellanos García, Gerardo (1934). Panorama histórico : Ensayo de cronología cubana : Desde 1492 hasta 1933 Tomo III. Ucar, García y Cía. pp. 1370–1371 – via archive.org.
- ^ Perez, Louis A. (2006). Cuba Between Reform and Revolution (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 168.
- ^ ISBN 0025882104.
- ^ ISBN 9780786456215.
- ^ a b c J. A. Sierra. "Race War of 1912 – A Timeline". History of Cuba.com. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
- ^ "USS Mississippi, Battleship (BB-23) History". Josediaz.net. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
- ^ "The 1912 Massacre of AfroCubans". AfroCubaWeb. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
Additional sources
- Aline Helg, Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886–1912 ( University of North Carolina Press, 1995)
- Pérez Louis A., "Politics, Peasants, and People of Color: The 1912 “Race War” in Cuba Reconsidered", Hispanic American Historical Review, 66 (3),1986, 509–539. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/00182168-66.3.509