Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a
Classification
The Commonwealth's administrative system was a pre-
Senatorial offices
The
The most important official was the
In addition, the Archbishop of Gniezno had the power to call a new Senat session, if he deemed it important to do so, even in the absence of the King. He could also invoke the "de non praestanda obedientia" article, giving the country the right to legally depose the King. From among other senators, he chose his own court marshal (often a Castellan). That person acted as the Archbishop's messenger during Senat meetings, giving signs (by moving a cross) that conveyed how the Archbishop wished his allies to vote. The Archbishop of Gniezno had two deputies: the bishops of Wrocław and Poznań.
Of
The power of the Voivodes had declined since that title had been introduced about the 12th century; in the 17th century, however, they were still the highest regional dignitaries. They were the highest representatives of their
Except for the
After 1565, the principle of "
A Marshal's duties consisted in providing security to the King and keeping order where he was present. Marshals commanded two
When the King traveled, Marshals supervised the local Voivodes. The Marshals decided who would be admitted to royal audience. They were the organizers and masters of royal and court ceremonies (including weddings, funerals and the like). They were the masters of the court, kept track of lesser courtiers, and (where applicable) set their salaries. Each Marshal wielded a
From 1507, the title of Grand Chancellor of the Crown was rotated between
The Chancellors' offices were the "
The Chancellors also had
The Chancellor often gave speeches representing the royal will. The symbol of his office was the
The Chancellor's powers tended to be reinforced by the fact that wars required funds that were appropriated by the
Last among the ministers were the Grand Treasurers. They kept accounts of the state finances, cash flow and State Treasury, and controlled the minting of coin. Since, like the Chancellors, they received no wages, corruption ran rampant and a sizable portion of state finances was lost in their pockets. If a Treasurer moved to another post, he was obliged to render accounts of his disbursements, and if he died, his family were required to produce them. A telling story is that of Bogusław Leszczyński, who while a Grand Treasurer (1650–1658) was offered a Chancellor's post, which he accepted in 1658. He bribed the members of the Parliament to grant him "absolution", and when one of them later opposed him, he asked, curious: "Who's this son of a bitch that I failed to pay off?"
Grand Treasurers supervised lesser officials such as the Master of the Mint (mincerz), dyspensators, kurators, tax collectors (poborca podatkowy), superintendents (overseer of customs officers), customs officers (celnik) and subkolektors. It should be remembered that, in those times, goods—as well as people—were taxed not only at borders but at bridges, crossroads and city gates.
List of Senatorial offices
- Marszałek Wielki Koronny (Latin: Mareschalus Regni Poloniae) – Grand Marshal of the Crown
- Marszałek Wielki Litewski (Latin: Mareschalus Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Grand Marshal of Lithuania
- KanclerzWielki Koronny (Latin: Cancellarius Regni Poloniae) – Grand Chancellor of the Crown
- Kanclerz Wielki Litewski (Latin: Cancellarius Ducis Magnis Lithuaniae) – Grand Chancellor of Lithuania
- PodkanclerzyKoronny (Latin: Subcancellarius Regni Poloniae) – Vice-Chancellor of the Crown
- Podkanclerzy Litewski (Latin: Subcancellarius Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Vice-Chancellor of Lithuania
- Podskarbi Wielki Koronny (Latin: Subcancellarius Regni Poloniae) – Grand Treasurer of the Crown
- Podskarbi Wielki Litewski (Latin: Subcancellarius Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Grand Treasurer of Lithuania
- Marszałek Nadworny Koronny (Latin: Mareschalus Curiae Regni Poloniae) – Court Marshal of the Crown
- Marszałek Nadworny Litewski (Latin: Mareschalus Curiae Magni Ducis Lithuaniae) – Court Marshal of Lithuania
- Voivodes (Palatines) (singular: Palatinus) – an ancient dignity, merged with that of Palatines: Governors of Voivodeships. The number of Voivodes slowly increased when new Voivodeships were created; at its greatest extent, the Commonwealth had 37. See Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealthfor details.
- castellanies). Their number also varied. The most important Castellan was that of Kraków, whose position in the hierarchy was actually superior to that of a Voivode. The Castellans were of three categories:
- Kasztelanowie Wyróżnieni – Distinguished Castellans (of Kraków, Vilnius and Trakai). They were seated among the Voivodes.
- Kasztelanowie Więksi (Krzesłowi) – Major Castellans (there were 31).
- Kasztelanowie Mniejsi (Drążkowi) – Minor Castellans (there were 49).
- Kasztelanowie Konarscy (Koniuszy) – Equerry Castellans (there were 3).
See Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for details.
The Senate also included
As the name suggests, non-Senat-related officials were not entitled to a vote in the Senat.
The most important such officials were the Great Secretaries (singular: sekretarz wielki), Crown and Lithuanian. Only a
Next were 4 Referendaries (singular: referendarz), 2 secular and 2 ecclesiastic, one each for the Crown and for Lithuania. They rarely left the royal court, and their duties consisted in hearing petitions and complaints, which they referred (hence their name) to the King. They also acted as judges in cases involving peasants from the King's lands, and often acted as Assessors at other courts. Close to the office of Referendary was that of the "Instygator"—what today would be termed a State Prosecutor. One each for Crown and for Lithuania, the Instygators were tasked with uncovering and dealing with crimes against the King and the country, and were authorized to prosecute any dignitary save the King. They had deputies known as "viceinstygators."
Then came the Great Writers (singular: pisarz wielki)—one for the Crown, three for Lithuania. It was their task to clarify royal decrees and send letters to those dignitaries who must hear of them. They often acted as ambassadors and Assessors.
The Crown Keeper (kustosz koronny) was the official responsible for safeguarding the Royal Treasury, where the royal insignia were kept. The keys to the Treasury were held by the Great Treasurer and six voivods, and without each of them, the Treasury could not be opened. Traditionally, the Crown Keeper was chosen from among the priests of Kraków Cathedral. The Lithuanian Keeper was actually called a Treasurer (skarbny).
From 1647, the ministers were joined by a Postmaster General (Poczmistrz generalny, also known as Poczmistrz naczelny or Generał poczmistrz), the supervisor of the Royal Post, founded in 1547.
In principle, Polish–Lithuanian officials enjoyed life tenure. Of several notable exceptions to that rule, the most important involved the Senat Marshal, who chaired Senat meetings and could suggest, but not determine, the subject of a meeting. Traditionally, the post of Senat Marshal rotated among Senators from the three prowincyje ("provinces" – major divisions) of the Republic, or Commonwealth:
The office of Marshal of the
The highest court for nobles was called the Crown Tribunal (Trybunł Koronny, created 1579) and was headed by a Tribunal President and a Marshal. The Marshal was chosen from and by the judges themselves, while the President dealt with ecclesiastic matters (and was himself a high-ranking priest). There was also a Lithuanian Tribunal (Trybunał Litewski) and Crown and Lithuanian Treasury courts, created in 1613 (Trybunał Skarbowy Koronny, Trybunał Skarbowy Litewski). Salaries for all judges were set at Sejm meetings.
Salt mines (żupy solne) were supervised by a żupnik. Other less important dignitaries named by the King or Sejm to deal with specific short-term questions were called "commissars", "lustrates", "revisers", "delegates", "legates" or "deputies."
Court offices
Official court posts are the most difficult to describe. Some court officials held responsibilities important to both the court and the country; the functions of others evolved over the centuries. In time (generally by the end of the 17th century), the titles of most had become merely honorary, and the King had to create another set of officials to deal with those responsibilities.
Court officials may be divided into those who served the King, and those who ensured the smooth running of his court (in the 16th century, comprising some 1,000–1,500 persons). Since the first group were not subject to the principle of incompatibilitas, they often held another title, usually that of a lesser district official such as a starosta. Of those who served the King, the most important was the Master of the Kitchen, who supervised the kitchen staff and equipment and the preparation of foods. During feasts, he announced the successive dishes.
Second in importance was the Pantler, who began setting the table. During feasts, he directed the setting of the dishes, aided by the Steward. The Carver finished setting the table with plates and utensils, and during the feast carved all the dishes that required the knife. After carving, he tasted them (by the 17th century, this was merely a tradition, left over from the days when this official used to detect poison).
Drink was seen to by the Cupbearer and the Royal Cupbearer. The first tasted of the drinks, poured them and ordered them; the second, upon receiving them from the former, served them to the King. A description of a 1596 banquet in the reign of King
A second set of dignitaries was headed by the Court Marshal (see above):
- Szambelan (Chamberlain) – in charge of the King's court and the domestic economy on Crown estates;
- Chorąży Wielki (Standard-bearer) – carried the King's banner;
- Miecznik Wielki (Sword-bearer) – carried the sword before the King;
- Koniuszy Wielki (Equerry) – in charge of the King's stables and stud;
- Łowczy Wielki (Master of the Hunt) – organized hunts, guarded the royal forests against poachers;
- Court Treasurer – managed the King's finances, kept accounts of his personal treasure, and supervised the court's treasures;
- Sekretarze Królewscy (Royal Secretaries) – dealt with the King's personal correspondence;
- Kapelan (Royal Chaplain) – conducted court masses, supervised the liturgical treasures, and oversaw the court musicians;
- and many other dignitaries, of progressively less importance, dealing with matters such as food supplies, transportation, etc.
The Queen had her own court, staffed with women; its influence in the country was much smaller.
List of court offices
- Sekretarz wielki koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Grand Secretary;
- Referendarz koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Referendary;
- Podskarbi nadworny koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Court Treasurer;
- Podkomorzy nadworny koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Court Chamberlain;
- Chorążywielki koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Grand Standard-bearer;
- Chorążynadworny koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Court Standard-bearer;
- Miecznikkoronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Sword-bearer;
- Kuchmistrz koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Master of the Kitchen;
- Koniuszy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Equerry;
- Cupbearer;
- Krajczykoronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Carver;
- Pantler;
- Podstoli koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Steward;
- Cześnikkorony – Crown Cupbearer;
- Łowczykoronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Master of the Hunt;
- Łowczy nadworny – Court Master of the Hunt;
- Regent kancelarii koronny i litewski – Court and Lithuanian Regent of the Chancellery;
- Metrykant koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Record-keeper;
- Pisarz sądowy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Judicial Notary;
- Pisarz wielki koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Great Notary;
- Pisarz skarbowy koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian Treasury Notary;
- Kusztosz koronny – Crown Keeper;
- Skarbny litewski – Lithuanian Treasurer;
- Instygator koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian State Prosecutor;
- Geometra litewski – Lithuanian Surveyor General;
- Wojski litewski – Lithuanian Wojski;
- Piwniczy litewski – Lithuanian Cellar-Master.
Military offices
The highest military officials were the Hetmans. As with most offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "hetman" was a job for life and its holder could not be removed even if he was a poor commander. Until the beginning of the 18th century, hetmans were not paid for their services.
Hetmans were very independent; they could maintain their own foreign contacts with the Ottoman Empire, Russia and the Tatars. They allocated their military budgets as they saw fit. As the highest military commanders and administrators, hetmans made administrative and juridical law concerning the military; from 1590, such law had the same force as the Sejm's legislation.
A Hetman's symbol of office was a mace (
The Hetmans chose a commissioner for a two-year period who commanded the Commonwealth's
Hetman and Regimentarz were accompanied by a staff of officers titled Great Guard, Field Guard, Field Clerk, Great Quartermaster and Field Quartermaster. These officers were salaried (the Lithuanian Field Guard, Field Clerk and Quartermaster received 15,000
The Great Guard directed the scout forces while on the march and in camp and commanded the advance guard (however, if both Hetmans were present, the Field Hetman acted as Great Guard). Field Guards were found only on the eastern borders.
The Field Clerks kept accounts of men, equipment and weapons, and paid the soldiers' wages.
The Quartermasters selected campsites, built the camps, and provided logistics and camp security.
After 1635, several new military titles were created:
- 1637 – General of Artillery (responsible for artillery forces and their logistics);
- 1670s – General of Logistics; General of Medics; General of Finances.
The combat readiness of troops was overseen by Inspectors General (however, it is unclear exactly when "in the 17th century" they were created).
List of military offices
- Hetman Wielki Koronny – Crown Grand Hetman;
- Hetman Wielki Litewski – Lithuanian Grand Hetman;
- Hetman Polny Koronny – Crown Field Hetman;
- Hetman Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Hetman;
- Strażnik Wielki Koronny – Crown Great Guard;
- Strażnik Wielki Litewski – Lithuanian Great Guard;
- Strażnik Polny Koronny – Crown Field Guard;
- Strażnik Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Guard;
- Pisarz Polny Koronny – Crown Field Clerk;
- Pisarz Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Clerk;
- Oboźny Wielki Koronny – Crown Great Quartermaster;
- Oboźny Wielki Litewski – Lithuanian Great Quartermaster;
- Oboźny Polny Koronny – Crown Field Quartermaster;
- Oboźny Polny Litewski – Lithuanian Field Quartermaster;
- Sędzia Wojskowy Koronny – Crown Military Judge;
- Sędzia Wojskowy Litewski – Lithuanian Military Judge;
- Generał artylerii koronny i litewski – Crown and Lithuanian General of Artillery;
- Regent Wojski litewski – Lithuanian Wojski Regent;
- Regimentarz – Deputy Hetman;
- Rotmistrz– Commander of an infantry or cavalry regiment;
- Towarzysz – Cavalryofficer (literally, "Companion");
- Towarzysz husarski – Hussarofficer;
- Towarzysz pancerny – Light cavalryofficer;
- .
District offices
A 1611 Constitution (amended 1633 and 1635) prescribed many officials. Exceptions to the rule, however, were the rule;
District officials were appointed by the King, with a few exceptions (local parliaments—sejmiki—chose Chamberlains, District Judges, Deputy District Judges, District Clerks, and in Lithuania also Standard-bearers and District Marshals). Chamberlains, except for the name, had nothing in common with the Court officials of the same name. They administered a court of law (the Chamberlain's Court) which had jurisdiction over property disputes. The District Judge headed the District Court, which had jurisdiction over civil and some criminal matters involving local nobility.
The
Standard-bearers carried the local banner during Royal ceremonies, and in war when local troops served in the Army. During war, Wojskis maintained order and security in their territories. In Lithuania, the responsibilities of Ciwuns were similar to those of non-city starostas (elders). District marshals presided over local parliaments (in the "Crown", District Marshals were chosen only for the duration of the parliament session, and so were much less powerful than those of Lithuania, who were chosen for life).
Crown
- Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
- Starosta grodowy – Mayor
- Chorąży – Standard-bearer
- Sędzia ziemski – District Judge
- Stolnik– Pantler
- Podczaszy– Royal Cupbearer
- Podsędek – Deputy District Judge
- Podstoli – Steward
- Cześnik– Cupbearer
- Łowczy– Master of the Hunt
- Wojski większy – Major Wojski
- Pisarz ziemski – District Clerk
- Miecznik– Sword-bearer
- Wojski mniejszy– Minor Wojski
- Skarbnik – Treasurer
Lithuania
- Marszałek ziemski – District Marshal
- Ciwun – Bailiff
- Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
- Starosta grodzki – Mayor
- Chorąży – Standard-bearer
- Sędzia ziemski – District judge
- Wojski większy – Major Wojski
- Stolnik– Pantler
- Podstoli – Steward
- Pisarz ziemski – District Clerk
- Podwojewódzki, Podstarosta – Deputy Voivod, Deputy Starosta
- Sędzia grodzki – City Judge
- Pisarz grodzki – City Clerk
- Podczaszy– Royal Cupbearer
- Cześnik– Cupbearer
- Horodniczy – Castellan
- Skarbnik – Treasurer
- Łowczy– Master of the Hunt
- Miecznik– Sword-bearer
- Koniuszy– Equerry
- Oboźny – Quartermaster
- Strażnik – Guard
- Krajczy – Carver
- Leśniczy – Forester
- Mostowniczy – Custodian of Bridges
- Budowniczy – Architect
Prussia
- Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
- Chorąży – Standard-bearer
- Sędzia – Judge
- Ławnik – Alderman
- Pisarz – Clerk
- Podwojewoda – Deputy Voivod (Deputy Governor)
Borough and judicial offices
The most important official was the Starosta. He was supported by a Borough Substarosta (podstarości grodowy), Burgrave (Burgrabia), Notary (Notariusz) and Scriptor (Pisarz). The Borough Substarosta assisted the Starosta and in his absence acted in his name with all his powers. Lower city officials were the Borough Regent (rejent grodzki), Borough Notary (notariusz grodzki), Borough Scriptor (pisarz grodzki) and common clerks ("subclerks" — podpiskowie).
In the eastern territories bordering on Russia, from 1667, a "Border Judge" cooperated with Russian judges in cases involving parties from the two countries; his rulings were final.
Judges were chosen from among the local hereditary nobles and had little formal training; therefore the quality of the courts varied from judge to judge, and levels of corruption were high. Attorneys, on the other hand, were required to have professional training. Sometimes a court included an asesor, who assisted the judge and collected fines and fees. Prosecutors were extremely rare. Instygators maintained order and security on court grounds, and a court runner (woźny) delivered summons.
List of borough and judicial offices
- Podstarosta grodowy – Borough Substarost
- Burgrabia – Burgrave
- Notariusz – Notary
- Rejent grodzki – Borough Regent
- Sędzia grodzki – Borough Judge
- Podsędek grodzki – Borough Subjudge
- Pisarz grodzki – Borough Clerk
In 1717 the "Numb Diet" barred non-Roman Catholics from being elected Envoys (to the Parliament), and to any other land offices if there was another Roman Catholic contender. The rights of the "Dissidents", as they were called, were reinstated in 1768, and in 1772 their representation in the Diet was limited to a statutory of two members. These rules were finally abolished in 1792 by the 3rd May Constitution.
Town and village offices
These offices were very stable, having evolved about the 13th century and lasting almost unchanged to the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The administrative system had come from Germany together with
Every city (without exception) had a Council and a Bench, the Council being the administrative branch and the Bench the judicial branch. A new Council was chosen by the old one whose term had expired. The Council was responsible for administration, law, privileges, security, finances, guild oversight, and the like. The Council chose the Mayor, and its members' decision was final—even the Starosta or Voivode could only listen to the Mayor's swearing-in and could not refuse to give him his seal. The Council met daily in the larger cities, less often in smaller ones.
The Mayor headed the Council and controlled the executive branch. He was responsible for conciliation, the care of the poor, and maintaining order by suppressing alcohol abuse and games of chance. Second to the Mayor was the Council Clerk, who ran the City Chancellery. The City Clerk (Syndyk Miejski) collected city taxes and supervised the tax collectors. Security and order in the city were the responsibility of the Hutman. He also supervised the city jail and the keyman who unlocked and locked the city gates at dawn and dusk.
The Lonar was the city treasurer, who oversaw its finances. He supervised the officials who controlled marketplace scales to ensure fair trade. Large cities also had scores of less common officials, such as Pipemasters, responsible for pipes and wells; Fire Chiefs; and City Translators, who assisted foreigners and looked out for spies.
The Bench was chaired by a wójt. He and the other Bench members were chosen by the Council for a year's term from among lesser city officials (writers, clerks, etc.).
City Chief Executioners executed not only criminals sentenced by the Bench, but often criminals sentenced by other non-military courts in Poland. They were well paid, sometimes functioned as physicians, but were also often considered social outcasts and lived outside the city walls.
A village mayor was called the sołtys and was the administrative, executive and judicial chief for the village, responsible only to the village's owner.
List of town and village offices
- Burmistrz – City Mayor;
- Wójt – Advocate-Mayor;
- Pisarz rady – Council Clerk;
- Syndyk miejski – City Clerk;
- Hutman – Constable;
- Lonar – City Treasurer.
Other
- Starosta grodowy, Starosta sądowy – City Starosta, Judicial Starosta;
- Starosta generalny wielkopolski – General Starosta of Wielkopolska;
- Starosta generalny małopolski – General Starosta of Małopolska;
- Burgrabia zamku krakowskiego – Burgrave of Kraków Castle;
- Surrogat – Surrogate.
Fictional offices
Fictional or fictitious offices were a specific kind of offices, as they referred to the territories which
Despite the fact that these territories did not belong to the Commonwealth any longer, and were under foreign rule, their administration existed for further 100 years, until the Partitions of Poland, with a complex hierarchy of all kinds of regional offices. The existence of fictional titles was the result of the special role of offices in the minds of the Polish–Lithuanian nobility: even though these offices were only honorary, without any material privileges and salaries, they determined social status of their bearers. Furthermore, having a title, albeit fictional, emphasized the position of an individual nobleman as a keen citizen and co-creator of the Commonwealth.
After
See also
- List of szlachta
- Hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
- Order of precedence in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
- Szlachta
- Table of Ranks
References
This article includes a improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2016) ) |