Cavalry
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Historically, cavalry (from the French word cavalerie, itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are
Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and
The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly valued and exploited in warfare during the
In the
Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Modern usage of the term generally refers to units performing the role of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) or main battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry).
Role
Historically, cavalry was divided into light cavalry and heavy cavalry. The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by the mount and rider.
Heavy cavalry, such as
Light and heavy cavalry roles continued through early modern warfare, but armor was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored. Yet many cavalry units still retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes, and the morale boost these provide to the wearers, despite the actual armour giving little protection from firearms. By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was in their training and weight; the former was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefield firepower increased, cavalry increasingly tended to become dragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to fight as infantry, even though retaining unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles. Military conservatism was however strong in most continental cavalry during peacetime and in these dismounted action continued to be regarded as a secondary function until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.[3]
With the development of
Early history
Origins
Before the
The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of
Cavalry techniques, and the rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of
The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no
As early as 490 BC a breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states,[11] and by 331 BC when Alexander the Great defeated the Persians the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive scythed chariots. The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC.[12] However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph, or for racing.
Outside of mainland Europe, the southern
Ancient Greece: city-states, Thebes, Thessaly and Macedonia
During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to those citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry, whose riders, armed with
Cavalry played a relatively minor role in
The
Roman Republic and Early Empire
The cavalry in the early
As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian
For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion.[22] The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia.[23]
After defeats such as the Battle of Carrhae, the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians.[24] At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome.[25] These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach the Iranian Plateau forced the Assyrians to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry.
Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period
In the army of the late Roman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role. The Spatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By the 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns.[26] Other specialist weapons during this period included javlins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces.[27]
The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the
The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman
The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as a member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes.[31]
Asia
Central Asia
The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of the
Khanates of Central Asia
-
Mongolmounted archer of Genghis Khan late 12th century.
-
Tatar vanguard in Eastern Europe13th–14th centuries.
-
Mongols at war 14th century
East Asia
China
Further east, the
In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao, the ruler of the former state of Jin, ordered his commanders and troops to adopt the trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills.[11]
The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the
On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the
). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana.Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attached
Korea
The horse warfare of
In the 12th century,
Japan
The ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. The emergence of the samurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charging lancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete. Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units.
An example is Yabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery. An archer on a running horse shoots three special "turnip-headed" arrows successively at three wooden targets.
This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period. Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had. He organized yabusame as a form of practice. Currently, the best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May). It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations.
Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit. "hat shooting") is a type of Japanese mounted archery. In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping the horse. While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery.
South Asia
Indian subcontinent
In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the
Indian literature contains numerous references to the mounted warriors of the
The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources attest that the Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars".[46] J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e. the Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen".[47]
The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and
Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. being ashva.yuddha.kushalah (expert cavalrymen).
The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen (asva-yuddha-Kushalah).
The
The cavalry of
As late as the mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province.[61][62][63][64][65]
Ancient Kambojas organised military sanghas and
Mughal Empire
The Mughal armies (lashkar) were primarily a cavalry force. The elite corps were the ahadi who provided direct service to the Emperor and acted as guard cavalry. Supplementary cavalry or dakhilis were recruited, equipped and paid by the central state. This was in contrast to the tabinan horsemen who were the followers of individual noblemen. Their training and equipment varied widely but they made up the backbone of the Mughal cavalry. Finally there were tribal irregulars led by and loyal to tributary chiefs. These included Hindus, Afghans and Turks summoned for military service when their autonomous leaders were called on by the Imperial government.[66]
European Middle Ages
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As the quality and availability of
As heavy cavalry increased in importance, it became the main focus of military development. The arms and armour for heavy cavalry increased, the high-backed saddle developed, and stirrups and spurs were added, increasing the advantage of heavy cavalry even more.[68]
This shift in military importance was reflected in an increasingly hierarchical society as well. From the late 10th century onwards heavily armed horsemen, milites or knights, emerged as an expensive elite taking centre stage both on and off the battlefield.[69] This class of aristocratic warriors was considered the "ultimate" in heavy cavalry: well-equipped with the best weapons, state-of-the-art armour from head to foot, leading with the lance in battle in a full-gallop, close-formation "knightly charge" that might prove irresistible, winning the battle almost as soon as it began.
But knights remained the minority of total available combat forces; the expense of arms, armour, and horses was only affordable to a select few. While mounted men-at-arms focused on a narrow combat role of shock combat, medieval armies relied on a large variety of foot troops to fulfill all the rest (
Massed
This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the
Islamic States
Arabs
The Islamic Prophet Muhammad made use of cavalry in many of his military campaigns including the
Early organized Arab mounted forces under the
The
Until the 11th century the classic cavalry strategy of the Arab Middle East incorporated the razzia tactics of fast moving raids by mixed bodies of horsemen and infantry. Under the talented leadership of Saladin and other Islamic commanders the emphasis changed to Mamluk horse-archers backed by bodies of irregular light cavalry. Trained to rapidly disperse, harass and regroup these flexible mounted forces proved capable of withstanding the previously invincible heavy knights of the western crusaders at battles such as Hattin in 1187. [74]
Mamluks
Originating in the 9th century as Central Asian ghulams or captives utilised as mounted auxiliaries by Arab armies,[75] Mamluks were subsequently trained as cavalry soldiers rather than solely mounted-archers, with increased priority being given to the use of lances and swords.[76] Mamluks were to follow the dictates of al-furusiyya,[77] a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds.
By the late 13th century the Manluk armies had evolved into a professional elite of cavalry, backed by more numerous but less well-trained footmen.[78]
Maghreb
The Islamic Berber states of North Africa employed elite horse mounted cavalry armed with spears and following the model of the original Arab occupiers of the region. Horse-harness and weapons were manufactured locally and the six-monthly stipends for horsemen were double those of their infantry counterparts. During the 8th century Islamic conquest of Iberia large numbers of horses and riders were shipped from North Africa, to specialise in raiding and the provision of support for the massed Berber footmen of the main armies.[79]
Maghrebi traditions of mounted warfare eventually influenced a number of
Al-Andalus
Iran
Qizilbash, were a class of Safavid militant warriors in Iran during the 15th to 18th centuries, who often fought as elite cavalry.[81][82][83][84]
Ottoman
During its period of greatest expansion, from the 14th to 17th centuries, cavalry formed the powerful core of the Ottoman armies. Registers dated 1475 record 22,000 Sipahi feudal cavalry levied in Europe, 17,000 Sipahis recruited from Anatolia, and 3,000 Kapikulu (regular body-guard cavalry).[85] During the 18th century however the Ottoman mounted troops evolved into light cavalry serving in the thinly populated regions of the Middle East and North Africa.[86] Such frontier horsemen were largely raised by local governors and were separate from the main field armies of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 19th century modernised Nizam-I Credit ("New Army") regiments appeared, including full-time cavalry units officered from the horse guards of the Sultan.[87]
Renaissance Europe
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Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the "golden age" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to half its numbers made up of various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in earlier medieval and later 17th-century armies the proportion of cavalry was seldom more than a quarter.
Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society. With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes called gendarmes and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age, that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged, either by charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief.
From the 1550s onwards, the use of
The Spanish
18th-century Europe and Napoleonic Wars
Cavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies. They remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but extended linear infantry formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at Blenheim (1704), Rossbach (1757), Marengo (1800), Eylau and Friedland (1807), remaining significant throughout the Napoleonic Wars.
Even with the increasing prominence of infantry, cavalry still had an irreplaceable role in armies, due to their greater mobility. Their non-battle duties often included patrolling the fringes of army encampments, with standing orders to intercept suspected shirkers and deserters,
The greatest cavalry charge of modern history was at the 1807 Battle of Eylau, when the entire 11,000-strong French cavalry reserve, led by Joachim Murat, launched a huge charge on and through the Russian infantry lines. Cavalry's dominating and menacing presence on the battlefield was countered by the use of infantry squares. The most notable examples are at the Battle of Quatre Bras and later at the Battle of Waterloo, the latter which the repeated charges by up to 9,000 French cavalrymen ordered by Michel Ney failed to break the British-Allied army, who had formed into squares.[91]
Massed infantry, especially those formed in squares were deadly to cavalry, but offered an excellent target for artillery. Once a bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able to rout and pursue the scattered foot soldiers. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages of World War I.
19th century
Europe
By the beginning of the 19th century, European cavalry fell into four main categories:
- Cuirassiers, heavy cavalry, adorned with body armor, especially a cuirass, and primarily armed with pistols and a sword
- Dragoons, originally mounted infantry, but later regarded as medium cavalry
- Hussars, light cavalry, primarily armed with sabres
- Lancers or Uhlans, light cavalry, primarily armed with lances
There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: France had the
In the Crimean War, the Charge of the Light Brigade and the Thin Red Line at the Battle of Balaclava showed the vulnerability of cavalry, when deployed without effective support.[95]
Franco-Prussian War
During the Franco-Prussian War, at the Battle of Mars-la-Tour in 1870, a Prussian cavalry brigade decisively smashed the centre of the French battle line, after skilfully concealing their approach. This event became known as Von Bredow's Death Ride after the brigade commander Adalbert von Bredow; it would be used in the following decades to argue that massed cavalry charges still had a place on the modern battlefield.[96]
Imperial expansion
Cavalry found a new role in colonial campaigns (
In 1903 the
Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of the modern Indian and Pakistani armies are:
- Governor General's Bodyguard (now President's Bodyguard)
- Skinner's Horse (now India's 1st Horse (Skinner's Horse))
- Gardner's Lancers (now India's 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse))
- Hodson's Horse (now India's 3rd Horse (Hodson's)) of the Bengal Lancers fame
- 18th Cavalry of the Indian Army
- 5th Horse, Pakistan)
- Royal Deccan Horse (now India's The Deccan Horse)
- Poona Horse (now India's The Poona Horse)
- Scinde Horse (now India's The Scinde Horse)
- Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now Pakistan).
- 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (now 11th Cavalry (Frontier Force), Pakistan)
Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example the Guides Cavalry of Pakistan.[98]
The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the end of the
Imperial Germany employed mounted formations in South West Africa as part of the
United States
In the early
- the frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all. This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West.[104]
These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout the
Developments 1900–1914
At the beginning of the 20th century, all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces, although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function). With motorised vehicles and aircraft still under development, horse mounted troops remained the only fully mobile forces available for manoeuvre warfare until 1914.[106]
England
Following the experience of the South African War of 1899–1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved more effective than regular cavalry), the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action in 1903. Lances were however readopted for active service in 1912.[107]
Russia
In 1882, the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar and lancer regiments to dragoons, with an emphasis on mounted infantry training. In 1910 these regiments reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms.[108]
Germany
By 1909, official regulations dictating the role of the Imperial German cavalry had been revised to indicate an increasing realization of the realities of modern warfare. The massive cavalry charge in three waves which had previously marked the end of annual maneuvers was discontinued and a new emphasis was placed in training on scouting, raiding and pursuit; rather than main battle involvement.[109] The perceived importance of cavalry was however still evident, with thirteen new regiments of mounted rifles (Jäger zu Pferde) being raised shortly before the outbreak of war in 1914.[110]
France
In spite of significant experience in mounted warfare in Morocco during 1908–14, the French cavalry remained a highly conservative institution.[111] The traditional tactical distinctions between heavy, medium, and light cavalry branches were retained.[112] French cuirassiers wore breastplates and plumed helmets unchanged from the Napoleonic period, during the early months of World War I.[113] Dragoons were similarly equipped, though they did not wear cuirasses and did carry lances.[114] Light cavalry were described as being "a blaze of colour". French cavalry of all branches were well mounted and were trained to change position and charge at full gallop.[115] One weakness in training was that French cavalrymen seldom dismounted on the march and their horses suffered heavily from raw backs in August 1914.[116]
First World War
Opening stages
Europe 1914
In August 1914, all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on both
On the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare arose from flat open terrain favorable to mounted warfare. On the outbreak of war in 1914 the bulk of the Russian cavalry was deployed at full strength in frontier garrisons and, during the period that the main armies were mobilizing, scouting and raiding into
Europe 1915–1918
For the remainder of the War on the Western Front, cavalry had virtually no role to play. The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: the
Italy entered the war in 1915 with thirty regiments of line cavalry, lancers and light horse. While employed effectively against their Austro-Hungarian counterparts during the initial offensives across the
Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops in reserve behind the lines, in anticipation of a penetration of the opposing trenches that it seemed would never come. Tanks, introduced on the Western Front by the British in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme, had the capacity to achieve such breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them. In their first major use at the Battle of Cambrai (1917), the plan was for a cavalry division to follow behind the tanks, however they were not able to cross a canal because a tank had broken the only bridge.[131] On a few other occasions, throughout the war, cavalry were readied in significant numbers for involvement in major offensives; such as in the Battle of Caporetto and the Battle of Moreuil Wood. However it was not until the German Army had been forced to retreat in the Hundred Days Offensive of 1918, that limited numbers of cavalry were again able to operate with any effectiveness in their intended role. There was a successful charge by the British 7th Dragoon Guards on the last day of the war.[132]
In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was still a use for mounted troops. Some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months of the war.[133] However, even here the value of cavalry was overrated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by the Russian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage.[134] In February 1917, the Russian regular cavalry (exclusive of Cossacks) was reduced by nearly a third from its peak number of 200,000, as two squadrons of each regiment were dismounted and incorporated into additional infantry battalions.[135] Their Austro-Hungarian opponents, plagued by a shortage of trained infantry, had been obliged to progressively convert most horse cavalry regiments to dismounted rifle units starting in late 1914.[136]
Middle East
In the Middle East, during the
In Egypt, the mounted infantry formations like the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and Australian Light Horse of ANZAC Mounted Division, operating as mounted infantry, drove German and Ottoman forces back from Romani to Magdhaba and Rafa and out of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula in 1916.
After a stalemate on the Gaza–Beersheba line between March and October 1917,
During a pause in operations necessitated by the
The Australian Mounted Division was armed with swords and in September, after the successful
Post–World War I
A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914–1918 being acted on immediately. There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian[138] and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica) that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare.[139] The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914.
Cavalry was extensively used in the
The post-war German Army (Reichsheer) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles.[141]
The British Army mechanised all cavalry regiments between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form the Royal Armoured Corps together with the Royal Tank Regiment. The U.S. Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934[142] and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanized cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933.[143]
During the
During the 1930s, the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations.[144] Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (chasseurs a' cheval, hussars and spahis) remained as mounted sabre squadrons.[145] The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances. In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance.
The 39 cavalry regiments of the
World War II
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While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish, Balkan, and Soviet campaigns. Rather than charge their mounts into battle, cavalry units were either used as mounted infantry (using horses to move into position and then dismounting for combat) or as reconnaissance units (especially in areas not suited to tracked or wheeled vehicles).
Polish
A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars.[147] Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorised vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position.[148] Second, there were a few incidents when Polish cavalry was trapped by German tanks, and attempted to fight free. However, this did not mean that the Polish army chose to attack tanks with horse cavalry.[149] Later, on the Eastern Front, the Red Army did deploy cavalry units effectively against the Germans.[150]
A more correct term would be "mounted infantry" instead of "cavalry", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland. Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle. Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, and in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet. Moreover, the
The last classical cavalry charge of the war took place on March 1, 1945, during the Battle of Schoenfeld by the 1st "Warsaw" Independent Cavalry Brigade. Infantry and tanks had been employed to little effect against the German position, both of which floundered in the open wetlands only to be dominated by infantry and antitank fire from the German fortifications on the forward slope of Hill 157, overlooking the wetlands. The Germans had not taken cavalry into consideration when fortifying their position which, combined with the "Warsaw"s swift assault, overran the German anti-tank guns and consolidated into an attack into the village itself, now supported by infantry and tanks.
Greek
The
Soviet
The contribution of Soviet cavalry to the development of modern military operational doctrine and its importance in defeating Nazi Germany has been eclipsed by the higher profile of tanks and airplanes.[152] Soviet cavalry contributed significantly to the defeat of the Axis armies.[152] They were able to provide the most mobile troops available in the early stages, when trucks and other equipment were low in quality; as well as providing cover for retreating forces. Considering their relatively limited numbers, the Soviet cavalry played a significant role in giving Germany its first real defeats in the early stages of the war. The continuing potential of mounted troops was demonstrated during the
Cavalry were amongst the first Soviet units to complete the encirclement in the Battle of Stalingrad, thus sealing the fate of the German 6th Army. Mounted Soviet forces also played a role in the encirclement of Berlin, with some Cossack cavalry units reaching the Reichstag in April 1945. Throughout the war they performed important tasks such as the capture of bridgeheads which is considered one of the hardest jobs in battle, often doing so with inferior numbers. For instance the 8th Guards Cavalry Regiment of the 2nd Guards Cavalry Division (Soviet Union), 1st Guards Cavalry Corps often fought outnumbered against elite German units.
By the final stages of the war only the Soviet Union was still fielding mounted units in substantial numbers, some in combined mechanized and horse units. The main advantage of this tactical approach was in enabling mounted infantry to keep pace with advancing tanks. Other factors favoring the retention of mounted forces included the high quality of Russian Cossacks, which provided about half of all mounted Soviet cavalry throughout the war. They excelled in warfare manoeuvers, since the lack of roads limited the effectiveness of wheeled vehicles in many parts of the Eastern Front. Another consideration was that sufficient logistic capacity was often not available to support very large motorized forces, whereas cavalry was relatively easy to maintain when detached from the main army and acting on its own initiative. The main usage of the Soviet cavalry involved infiltration through front lines with subsequent deep raids, which disorganized German supply lines. Another role was the pursuit of retreating enemy forces during major front-line operations and breakthroughs.
Hungarian
During World War II, the Royal Hungarian Army's hussars were typically only used to undertake reconnaissance tasks against Soviet forces, and then only in detachments of section or squadron strength.
The last documented hussar attack was conducted by
An eyewitness account of the last hussar attack by Erich Kern, a German officer, was written in his memoir in 1948:[153]
… We were again in a tough fight with the desperately defensive enemy who dug himself along a high railway embankment. We've been attacked four times already, and we've been kicked back all four times. The battalion commander swore, but the company commanders were helpless. Then, instead of the artillery support we asked for countless times, a Hungarian hussar regiment appeared on the scene. We laughed. What the hell do they want here with their graceful, elegant horses? We froze at once: these Hungarians went crazy. Cavalry Squadron approached after a cavalry squadron. The command word rang. The bronze-brown, slender riders almost grew to their saddle. Their shining colonel of golden parolis jerked his sword. Four or five armored cars cut out of the wings, and the regiment slashed across the wide plain with flashing swords in the afternoon sun. Seydlitz attacked like this once before. Forgetting all caution, we climbed out of our covers. It was all like a great equestrian movie. The first shots rumbled, then became less frequent. With astonished eyes, in disbelief, we watched as the Soviet regiment, which had so far repulsed our attacks with desperate determination, now turned around and left its positions in panic. And the triumphant Hungarians chased the Russian in front of them and shredded them with their glittering sabers. The hussar sword, it seems, was a bit much for the nerves of Russians. Now, for once, the ancient weapon has triumphed over modern equipment ....
Italian
The last mounted sabre charge by Italian cavalry occurred on August 24, 1942, at
Other Axis Powers
Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry were dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia.[155] Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War.
Finnish
Finland used mounted troops against Russian forces effectively in forested terrain during the Continuation War.[156] The last Finnish cavalry unit was not disbanded until 1947.
American
The U.S. Army's last horse cavalry actions were fought during World War II: a) by the
British
All British Army cavalry regiments had been mechanised since 1 March 1942 when the
Mongolian
In the early stages of World War II, mounted units of the Mongolian People's Army were involved in the
Post–World War II to the present day
While most modern "cavalry" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case. The modern Irish Defence Forces (DF) includes a "Cavalry Corps" equipped with armoured cars and Scorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles. The DF has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort of Blue Hussars drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions). However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force.
Some engagements in late 20th and early 21st century
Central and South American armies maintained mounted cavalry for longer than those of Asia, Europe, or North America. The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid-1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops.[159]
The Soviet Army retained horse cavalry divisions until 1955.[160]
Operational horse cavalry
Today the
As of 2007, the Chinese
The Chilean Army still maintains a mixed armoured cavalry regiment, with elements of it acting as mounted mountain exploration troops, based in the city of Angol, being part of the III Mountain Division[167][circular reference], and another independent exploration cavalry detachment in the town of Chaitén. The rugged mountain terrain calls for the use of special horses suited for that use.
The Argentine Army has two mounted cavalry units: the Regiment of Horse Grenadiers, which performs mostly ceremonial duties but at the same time is responsible for the president's security (in this case, acting as infantry), and the 4th Mountain Cavalry Regiment (which comprises both horse and light armoured squadrons), stationed in San Martín de los Andes, where it has an exploration role as part the 6th Mountain Brigade. Most armoured cavalry units of the Army are considered successors to the old cavalry regiments from the Independence Wars, and keep their traditional names, such as Hussars, Cuirassiers, Lancers, etc., and uniforms. Equestrian training remains an important part of their tradition, especially among officers.
Ceremonial horse cavalry and armored cavalry retaining traditional titles
Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the Algerian, Argentine, Bolivian, Brazilian, British, Bulgarian, Canadian, Chilean, Colombian, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Indian, Italian, Jordanian, Malaysian, Moroccan, Nepalese, Nigerian, North Korean, Omani, Pakistani, Panamanian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Senegalese, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Tunisian, Turkmenistan, United States, Uruguayan and Venezuelan armed forces.
A number of armoured regiments in the British Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Light Dragoons, Dragoon Guards, Lancers and Yeomanry. Only the Household Cavalry (consisting of the Life Guards' mounted squadron, The Blues and Royals' mounted squadron, the State Trumpeters of The Household Cavalry and the Household Cavalry Mounted Band) are maintained for mounted (and dismounted) ceremonial duties in London.
The
In the
The modern
In 2002, the Army of the Russian Federation reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms.
Both the Australian and New Zealand armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles (Light Horse or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units. However, neither country retains a horse-mounted unit.
Several
Non-combat support roles
The First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry is a volunteer unit within the Pennsylvania Army National Guard which serves as a combat force when in federal service but acts in a mounted disaster relief role when in state service.[172] In addition, the Parsons' Mounted Cavalry is a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit which forms part of the Corps of Cadets at Texas A&M University. Valley Forge Military Academy and College also has a Mounted Company, known as D-Troop .
Some individual
Social status
From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport.
For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high
In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status. For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of the line infantry regiments to live on their pay. Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units. These included the British Indian cavalry, the Russian Cossacks or the French Chasseurs d'Afrique.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in their
On film
Some sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 film Waterloo, which featured some 2,000 cavalrymen,[177] some of them Cossacks. It included detailed displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapons in large numbers at the gallop (unlike the real battle of Waterloo, where deep mud significantly slowed the horses).[178] The Gary Cooper movie They Came to Cordura contains a scene of a cavalry regiment deploying from march to battle line formation. A smaller-scale cavalry charge can be seen in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003); although the finished scene has substantial computer-generated imagery, raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices.
Other films that show cavalry actions include:
- The Charge of the Light Brigade, about the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War
- 40,000 Horsemen, about the Australian Light Horse during the Sinai and Palestine campaign of World War I
- The Lighthorsemen, about the Battle of Beersheba, 1917
- War Horse, about the British cavalry in Europe during World War I
- Hubal, about the last months (September 1939 – April 1940) of Poland's first World War II guerrilla, Major Henryk Dobrzański, "Hubal"
- The Patriot includes light cavalry usage.
- And Quiet Flows the Don depicts Don Cossacks during World War I
- Kingdom of Heaven includes a cavalry charge during the Siege of Kerak
- The Life and Times of Joseph J. Dumas (film) semi-fictional video biography of a notable, modern cavalry officer
- The Last Samurai - a US army veteran, is hired by the Japanese emperor to train his army in the modern warfare techniques
Examples
Types
- Heavy cavalry
- Light cavalry
- Hobelars (medieval light horse)
- Hussar
- Numidian cavalry
- Soldado de cuera
- Uhlans
- Horse archer
- Shock troops
- Mounted infantry
- Military communities
- Chariot
- Elephantry, a cavalry unit containing elephant-mounted troops
- Camel cavalry
- Mounted police
- Dubious
- Moose cavalry, cavalry mounted on moose (European elk)
Units
- 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment(United States)
- 278th Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States)
- Australian Light Horse
- Bayreuth Dragoons
- The Blues and Royals (British Army)(who with the Life Guards form the Household Cavalry)
- British Columbia Dragoons (Canadian Army)
- 1st Cavalry Division (United States)
- 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards (British Army)
- Cavalry Corps (Irish Army)
- Chasseurs d'Afrique (French Army)
- Chinacos (Mexican irregular cavalry of the 19th century)
- Garde Républicaine(French Gendarmerie)
- Governor General's Horse Guards(Canada)
- Guarda Nacional Republicana(Portuguese National Guard)
- Guides Cavalry (Pakistan Army)
- Hakkapeliitta (Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War)
- Ironside
- King's Royal Hussars (British Army)
- Light Dragoons (British Army)
- Panserbataljonen(Norwegian Army)
- Queen's Own Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment)
- Queen's Royal Hussars (British Army)
- Regulares (Spanish Morocco)
- Royal Dragoon Guards (British Army)
- Royal Lancers (British Army)
- Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers & Greys) (British Army)
- Royal Wessex Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Armoured Regiment)
- Royal Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment)
- Savage Division(North Caucasus)
- Savari (Italian North African)
- Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment)
- Sipahi (Ottoman)
- South Alberta Light Horse (Canadian Army)
- Spahi (French North African)
- Tagmata (Byzantine)
- United States Cavalry
Notable horse cavalrymen
- Georgios Stanotas, commander of the Hellenic Army's Cavalry Division during World War II[179]
- École Nationale d'Équitation's Cadre Noir, Olympian at 2004 Summer Olympics
- Edwin Ramsey, lieutenant colonel in the 26th Cavalry Regiment during World War II, recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, led the last cavalry charge in American military history[180]
- General Altay. Atatürk'ün Bütün Eserleri, Cilt 27, Kaynak Yayınları, 1998, ISBN 978-975-343-235-1, p. 81.
- Lieutenant Colonel Joseph J. Dumas, 46th Professor of Military Science at Michigan State University and a notable member and representative of the distinguished cavalry lineage.
Gallery
-
Washington National Guard cavalry pictured in Tacoma, Washington in 1907.
-
Frenchcuirassiers, wearing breastplates and helmets, parade through Paris on the way to battle, August 1914.
-
Spanish light cavalry (cazadores) during the Rif War 1921.
-
Cavalry of Poland in Warsaw, August 1939.
-
Polish PZL W-3 Sokół of the 66 Air Cavalry Squadron, 25th Aeromobile Cavalry Brigade.
-
The mountedPresident's Bodyguard of the Indian Army
-
French Republican Guard – 2008 Bastille Day military parade
-
The President's Body Guard of the Pakistan Army, 2006.
-
Troopers of the Blues and Royals on mounted duty in Whitehall, London
-
Turkmenistan ceremonial cavalry in the Independence Day parade 2011
-
A Mongolian military horseman, 2013
-
Representative Cavalry Squadron of thePolish Armyon military parade in Warsaw, 2006
See also
- Cavalry tactics
- Shock tactics
- Horses in warfare
- Armored reconnaissance– a modern role in most militaries for 'cavalry' titled units
Notes
- ^ In Sanskrit:
- asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih
- Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara
- balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama
- (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).
- ISBN 0-09-174527-6
- ^ Lynn (1997), p. 490.
- ISBN 978-1-4728-4882-6.
- ^ "eARMOR The Principles of the Employment of Armor". www.benning.army.mil. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
- ^ Menon (1995), p. 1.
- ISBN 0-85045-384-4
- ^ Kelder, Jorrit. "Horseback riding and Cavalry in Mycenaean Greece".
- ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6.
- ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6.
- ISBN 0-85045-384-4[page needed]
- ^ a b Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), pp. 29–30.
- ^ Warry (1980), p. 164.
- ^ Warry (1980), p. 37.
- ISBN 0-85045-539-1.
- ^ Warry (1980), p. 54.
- ISBN 0-85045-539-1.
- ISBN 978-1-84908-714-8.
- ISBN 0-85045-539-1.
- ISBN 1-85532-598-5.
- ISBN 1-85532-513-6.
- ISBN 1-85532-361-3.
- ISBN 1-85532-598-5.
- ISBN 1-85532-513-6.
- ISBN 978-1-4728-3004-3.
- ISBN 1-85532-598-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4728-3950-3.
- ISBN 978-1-4728-0666-6.
- ^ "Roman-Persian Wars". Historynet.com. 12 June 2006. Archived from the original on 29 May 2006. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
- ^ The raised rear part of a saddle
- ISBN 978-1-4728-3004-3.
- ISBN 0-7137-1813-7.
- ^ Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 29.
- ^ Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 30.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), p. 41.
- ^ Peers, 130. we can right anything
- ^ "Dien, Albert. 'The Stirrup and its Effect on Chinese Military History'".
- ^ "'The stirrup – history of Chinese science'. UNESCO Courier, October 1988". Archived from the original on 13 October 2007.
- ^ ""The invention and influences of stirrup"". Archived from the original on December 3, 2008.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 305.
- ^ Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 120.
- ^ Lee, Peter H & Wm. Theodore De Bary. Sources of Korean Tradition, pp. 24–26. Columbia University Press, 1997.
- ^ "Invention of the Stirrup". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2017-03-11.
- ^ pp. 182–183, Pargiter.
- ^ Harivamsa 14.1–19; Vayu Purana 88.127–43; Brahma Purana (8.35–51); Brahamanda Purana (3.63.123–141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15–21), Padama Purana (6.21.16–33) etc.
- ^ War in Ancient India, 1944, p. 178, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshtar, Military art and science.
- ^ Journal of American Oriental society, 1889, p. 257, American Oriental Society; The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India: As ..., 1972, p. 201, Edward Washburn Hopkins – Caste; Mahabharata 10.18.13; cf: Ancient Indian Civilization, 1985, p. 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin – History; Cf also: A History of Zoroastrianism, 1991, p. 129, Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet.
- ^ MBH 1.185.13; Felicitation Volume Presented to Professor Sripad Krishna Belvalkar, 1957, p. 260, Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Shripad Krishna Belvalkar.
- ^ Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, professor Sen Sarma etc.
- ^ Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. Law – Kshatriyas; The Battle of Kurukshetra, 1987, p. 389, Maggi Lidchi-Grassi – Kurukshetra (India).
- ^ Herodotus, Book VII 65, 70, 86, 187.
- ^ History of Persian Empire, p. 232, Dr A. M. Olmstead; Arrian's Anabasis III, 8.3–6; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 216, Dr Raychaudhury.
- ^ Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14 Kumbhakonam Edition; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, prof Sen Sarma; etc.; Kashmir Polity, C. 600–1200 AD 1986, p. 237, V. N. Drabu – Political Science.
- ^ Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1943, p. 145, Dr K. P. Jayaswal.
- ^ i.e.: Kambojo assa.nam ayata.nam. See: Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p. 124; See also: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–220, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. – Kshatriyas; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p. 351, Dr Buddha Prakash – India.
- ^ Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, 1967, p. 49, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri.
- ^ "Par ailleurs le Kamboja est régulièrement mentionné comme la "patrie des chevaux" (Asvanam ayatanam), et cette reputation bien etablie gagné peut-etre aux eleveurs de chevaux du Bajaur et du Swat l'appellation d'Aspasioi (du v.-p. aspa) et d'assakenoi (du skt asva "cheval")" (See: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; See also: Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p. 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–220, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p. 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee;; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p. 100 – History; East and West, 1950, pp. 28, 157–158, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Panjab Past and Present, pp. 9–10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Raja Porus, 1990, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University, Patiala; History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; History of Porus, 1967, p. 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp. 271–272, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp. 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp. 129, 218–219, S Kirpal Singh etc.
- ^ Ashtadhyayi 4.3.91; India as Known to Pāṇini, 1953, pp. 424, 436–439, 455–457, Dr V. S. Aggarwala.
- ^ See: History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p. 225, Dr Buddha Prakash; Raja Porus, 1990, p. 9, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala.
- ^ Kālidāsa, 1960, p. 141, Raghunath Damodar Karmarkar.
- ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p. 511 Dr H. C. Ray.
- ^ History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, pp. 182–183, Dr R. C. Majumdar.
- ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p. 625.
- ^ Dynastic History of Magadha, 1977, p. 208.
- ^ Epigraphia Indiaca, XVIII, pp. 304ff.
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- ^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 231. (online)
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- ^ p. 239, Muir
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- ^ Johnson, Samuel (1921), The History of the Yorubas, from the earliest times to the beginning of the British protectorate, p. 73-75.
- ^ Frances Pritchett. "part2_19". columbia.edu. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
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- ^ White (2012), pp. 257, 266.
- ^ White (2012), p. 266.
- ^ "BBC History: The Battle of Waterloo". Archived from the original on 2015-03-26. Retrieved 2019-12-20.
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- ^ L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962, General R. Hure, Paris-Limogues 1977
- ^ Plates I & IV, "Under Italian Libya's Burning Sun", The National Geographic Magazine August 1925
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- ^ Gervase Phillips, "Writing Horses into American Civil War History". War in History 20.2 (2013): 160-181.
- ^ Starr Stephen Z. The Union Cavalry in the Civil War, (3 vols. LSU Press, 1979–81)
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- ^ p. 570, Volume 5, Encyclopædia Britannica – 11th edition.
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- ^ First World War, Willmott, H. P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003
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{{cite book}}
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- Peers, C. J. (2006). Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BC–AD 1840. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
- ISBN 0-393-04579-X.
- Warry, John (1980). Warfare in the Classical World. Salamander Books. ISBN 0-86101-034-5.
- White, Matthew (2012). ISBN 9780393081923.
External links
- CavalryScouts.org
- Napoleonic Cavalry
- Cavalry tactics from Francis J. Lippitt's, A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms: Infantry, Artillery and Cavalry (1865)
- Cavalry in Mass (U.S. report on Russian cavalry organization and operations in World War II)
- Society of the Military Horse
- Gesellschaft der Freunde der Kavallerie (German)
- The Horse and Mule in the British Army during WW1
- Historic films showing cavalry during World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu