Pronophilina
Pronophilina | |
---|---|
Montagna mountain satyr (Pedaliodes montagna), Arví Park, Colombia | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Order: | Lepidoptera |
Family: | Nymphalidae |
Tribe: | Satyrini |
Subtribe: | Pronophilina Reuter, 1896[1] |
Pronophilina is a Neotropical subtribe of butterflies of the subfamily Satyrinae. They are a species-rich group with highest diversity in the tropical and subtropical mountains, especially the Andes. Before 1970, they were poorly studied, but recent interest has resulted in high rates of species description from previously unexplored mountain ranges. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on their biology and ecology. Their relationship to other groups of Satyrine butterflies and their complex patterns of speciation within and among mountain ranges have led to several biogeographic discussions.
Systematics and taxonomy
Traditionally the name Pronophilini (or Pronophilidi) was used to describe a tribe of Neotropical
Morphological analysis indicates there is a distinct core group of Pronophilina
By the time Reuter proposed Pronophilidi as a formal tribe, there were some 230 described species.
Description
The subtribe Pronophilina can be separated from other American satyrines by the following three external morphological synapomorphies: eyes always densely hairy; hindwing cross vein m1-m2 always curved or angled basally into the discal cell; maximum length of hindwing discal cell equal to or longer than half the total maximum length of the hindwing (excluding tails).[4] These characters separate the Pronophilina sensu stricto from other Neotropical montane satyrids previously included in the group. This arrangement has been adopted by Lamas,[3] but phylogenetic analysis based on molecular data suggests a larger, more inclusive delimitation of Pronophilina is needed.
The background color of most species is dominated by brown, dark gray or black, with few and slight distinctive features in the wings, but some species show colorful variations between white, yellow, orange, red and iridescent blue.[4]
Genera
Pronophilina sensu stricto[4]
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Disputed, Pronophilina or Hypocystina (=Coenonymphina)[5]
Disputed, Pronophilina or Erebiina[5]
Previously in Pronophilina but of uncertain position
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Biology
The life cycle of pronophiline butterflies has been scarcely documented. Schultze[10] described incomplete life histories for Pedaliodes phoenissa (Hewitson), Lymanopoda samius Westwood and Junea doraete (Hewitson). Other authors have observed oviposition on Chusquea (Poaceae) or other woody bamboos,[11][12] or loosely over grass dominated vegetation.[13] Early stages of several species found in Costa Rica were published by DeVries.[14] Recently, life cycle description have been documented for Parapedaliodes parepa (Hewitson) in Ecuador,[15] Pedaliodes zingara Viloria & Heredia in Colombia,[16] Pedaliodes poesia (Hewitson) and Corades medeba Doubleday in Ecuador,[17][18] and Daedalma dinias emma Pyrcz & Greeney and Daedalma rubroreducta Pyrcz & Willmott.[8]
Biotic associations
Host plants
All reported host plants are in the family Poaceae, with the genus Chusquea featuring prominently, and a few records in Cynodon, Saccharum, Bambusa, Guada, Rhipidocladum, Merostachys and Zea, among others.[4][19][20]
Parasitism
Parasitoids in the early stages of pronophiline butterflies have not been properly documented, although they might be locally important.
Mimicry
There are 18 documented examples of convergent coloration patterns between coexisting pairs of pronophiline species from different genera (three examples), between pronophiline species and other satyrines (eight examples), and between pronophiline species and other butterflies or skippers (seven examples).[4] Most examples involve species of Lymanopoda or Eretris. Some of these observations have been described as mimetic relationships, but the degree of resemblance is not so accurate as in other mimetic butterfly groups, there is no direct evidence of unpalatability of pronophiline butterflies, and no clear understanding of the ecological consequences of such resemblance.[4]
Diversity
Depending on the classification adopted, the pronophilini include between 592 and 711 species.[3][4] This represents approximately 50–60% of the Neotropical,[3] and 23–27% of the worldwide Satyrinae.[22]
Most species have a geographically and altitudinally restricted distribution in the tropical and subtropical Andes, and other mountain ranges in Brazil, the Guayana Shield, Central America, and Mexico. The genus Calisto has a Caribbean distribution, and some other genera are distributed in Patagonia.[4]
Biogeography
The pronophilines have been involved in diverse biogeographical discussions that aim to explain their current distribution, diversity and
Origins
The affinities of the Pronophilina to other species groups within the specious Satyrinae suggest different interpretations about its origin. Viloria
Speciation
It has been observed that most mountain species, especially in the species-rich genera close to Pedaliodes, have very narrow altitudinal ranges, and are restricted to one or few mountain ranges. This leads to high
The genus Calisto also shows a distinctive radiation in the Caribbean, where it is the only representative of the Satyrinae.[25] At least 54 named taxa have been recognized, most of them restricted to particular habitats in the island of Hispaniola, with fewer species in Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.[3] The diversification of Calisto is referred to as an example of adaptive radiation into contrasting habitat types.[25]
References
- ^ a b Reuter, E. R. (1896). "Über die Palpen der Rhopaloceren: ein Beitrag zur Erkenntnis der verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen unter den Tagfaltern". Acta Societas Scientiarum Fennica. 22: 1–577.
- ^ Miller, L. D. (1968). "The higher classification, phylogeny, and zoogeography of the Satyridae (Lepidoptera)". Memoirs of the American Entomological Society. 24: 1–174.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lamas, G. 2004 Atlas of Neotropical Lepidoptera. CheckList: Part 4A Hesperioidea-Papilionoidea Scientific Publishers.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Viloria, A.L (2007). "The Pronophilini: Synopsis of their Biology and Systematics" (PDF). Tropical Lepidoptera. 2004 (15): 1–17.
- ^ a b c Viloria, A. L. (2004). "Some Gondwanan and Laurasian elements in the satyrine fauna of South America (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae)" (PDF). Tropical Lepidoptera. 15: 53–55.
- ^ PMID 21437476.
- ^ PMID 16563805.
- ^ .
- .
- ^ A. Schultze 1929 "Die ersten Stände von drei kolumbianischen hochandinen Satyriden" Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift 'Iris' 43: 157–165, 3 plates.
- .
- ^ Pyrcz, T. W.; Willmott, K. R.; Hall, J. P. (1999). "Contributions to the knowledge of Ecuadorian Pronophilina, Part 3, Three new species and five new subspecies of Lymanopoda (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae)". Genus. 10: 497–522.
- PMID 12952626.
- ^ P. J DeVries 1987 The butterflies of {Costa Rica} and their natural history. Papilionidae, {Pieridae}, Nymphalidae Princeton University PressPrinceton.
- ^ Pelz, V. (1997). "Life history of Pedaliodes parepa from Ecuador (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae)". Tropical Lepidoptera. 8: 41–45.
- ^ Heredia, M. D.; Viloria, A. L. (2004). "Description and life history of Pedaliodes zingara, a new satyrine species from Colombia". Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 58: 80–87.
- ^ Greeney, H.; Pyrcz, T. W.; Dyer, L. A.; Sanches, M. Z. (2010). "The early stages and natural history of Corades medeba Hewitson, 1850 in eastern Ecuador (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Satyrinae, Pronophilina)". Tropical Lepidoptera Research. 20: 8–13.
- PMID 19619029.
- ^ George W. Beccaloni, Angel Luis Viloria, Stephen R. Hall, and Gaden S. Robinson 2008 Catalogue of the hostplants of the Neotropical butterflies. Catálogo de las plantas huésped de las mariposas neotropicales RIBES-CYTED / Sociedad Entomológica AragonesaZaragoza.
- PMID 23717448.
- ^ Lichy, R. (1946). "Documents pour servir a l'etude des Lépidoptérès du Vénézuéla (3e Note). Un cas de parasitisme sur les ailes des Lépidoptérès". Bol. Ent. Venez. 5: 1–4.
- ^ G. Lamas 2008 La sistemática sobre mariposas (Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea y Papilionoidea) en el mundo: estado actual y perspectivas futuras: 57–70.
- ^ a b A. L. Viloria 2003 "Historical biogeography and the origins of the satyrine butterflies of the tropical Andes (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera)", In: Llorente J. Morrone, J. J. (Eds.) Una perspectiva latinoamericana de la biogeografía Universidad Autónoma de México, México.
- ^ a b c Michael J Adams 1985 Speciation in the pronophiline butterflies (Satyridae) of the northern Andes Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera Supl. 1: 33–49.
- ^ PMID 24260629.
- PMID 19793750.
- ^ a b A. L. Viloria 1999 Studies on the systematics and biogeography of some montane satyrid butterflies (Lepidoptera). Imperial College, London. PhD Thesis