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Since 2018, Wolfram has been producing a [[podcast]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://soundcloud.com/stephenwolfram/|title=The Stephen Wolfram Podcast &#124; Free Listening on SoundCloud|website=Soundcloud|access-date=2019-09-18}}</ref> where he discusses topics ranging from the history of science to the future of civilization and ethics of AI.
Since 2018, Wolfram has been producing a [[podcast]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://soundcloud.com/stephenwolfram/|title=The Stephen Wolfram Podcast &#124; Free Listening on SoundCloud|website=Soundcloud|access-date=2019-09-18}}</ref> where he discusses topics ranging from the history of science to the future of civilization and ethics of AI.

In 2019, Wolfram was part of a panel of four witnesses who testified before the US Senate Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, Innovation, and the Internet in a hearing titled "Optimizing for Engagement: Understanding the Use of Persuasive Technology on Internet Platforms."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.commerce.senate.gov/2019/6/optimizing-for-engagement-understanding-the-use-of-persuasive-technology-on-internet-platforms|title=Optimizing for Engagement: Understanding the Use of Persuasive Technology on Internet Platforms|website=Engadget|access-date=2021-02-24}}</ref>


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==

Revision as of 16:06, 24 February 2021

Stephen Wolfram
Wolfram in 2008
Born (1959-08-29) 29 August 1959 (age 64)
London, England
NationalityBritish, American
EducationDragon School[5]
Eton College
Alma mater
Known for
AwardsMacArthur Fellowship (1981)
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
ThesisSome Topics in Theoretical High-Energy Physics (1980)
Doctoral advisorRichard D. Field[3]
Website

Stephen Wolfram (/ˈwʊlfrəm/; born 29 August 1959) is a British-American[6] computer scientist, physicist, and businessman. He is known for his work in computer science, mathematics, and in theoretical physics.[7][8] In 2012, he was named an inaugural fellow of the American Mathematical Society.[9]

As a businessman, he is the founder and CEO of the software company

Mathematica
.

Early life

Family

Stephen Wolfram was born in London in 1959 to Hugo and Sybil Wolfram, both

German Jewish refugees to the United Kingdom.[10]

Wolfram's father, Hugo Wolfram (1925–2015), a textile manufacturer born in Bochum, Germany, served as managing director of the Lurex Company, makers of the fabric Lurex. He was also the author of three novels.[11][12][13][14] He emigrated to England in 1933.[15] When World War II broke out, he left school at 15 and subsequently found it hard to get a job since he was regarded as an "enemy alien". As an adult, he took correspondence courses in philosophy and psychology.[11]

Wolfram's mother,

Lady Margaret Hall at University of Oxford from 1964 to 1993. She published two books, Philosophical Logic: An Introduction (1989)[16] and In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England (1987).[17][18] She was the translator of Claude Lévi-Strauss's La Pensée sauvage (The Savage Mind), but later disavowed the translation.[19][20] She was the daughter of criminologist and psychoanalyst Kate Friedlander (1902–1949), an expert on the subject of juvenile delinquency,[21] and the physician Walter Misch (1889–1943) who, together, wrote Die vegetative Genese der neurotischen Angst und ihre medikamentöse Beseitigung.[22] After the Reichstag fire in 1933, she emigrated from Berlin, Germany, to England with her parents and Jewish psychoanalyst Paula Heimann (1899–1982).[23][24][25]

Stephen Wolfram is married to a mathematician. They have four children together.[26][27]

Education

File:Stephen report card.jpg
Stephen Wolfram's Dragon School report card from age 7.[28]

Wolfram was educated at

St. John's College, Oxford, at age 17 but found lectures "awful",[18] and left in 1978[32] without graduating[33][34] to attend the California Institute of Technology the following year, where he received a PhD[35] in particle physics on 19 November 1979 at age 20.[36] Wolfram's thesis committee was composed of Richard Feynman, Peter Goldreich, Frank J. Sciulli and Steven Frautschi, and chaired by Richard D. Field.[36][37]

Early career

As a young child, Wolfram had difficulties learning arithmetic.[38] At the age of 12, he wrote a directory of physics.[39] By age 14, he had written three books on particle physics.[40][41][42]

Particle physics

Wolfram, at the age of 15, began research in applied

peer-reviewed scientific journals including Nuclear Physics B, Australian Journal of Physics, Nuovo Cimento, and Physical Review D.[43] Working independently, Wolfram published a widely cited paper on heavy quark production at age 18[4] and nine other papers,[18] and continued research and to publish on particle physics into his early twenties. Wolfram's work with Geoffrey C. Fox on the theory of the strong interaction is still used in experimental particle physics.[44]

A 1981 letter from Feynman to Gerald Freund giving reference for Wolfram for the MacArthur grant appears in Feynman's collected letters, Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track. Following his PhD, Wolfram joined the faculty at Caltech and became the youngest recipient[45] of the MacArthur Fellowships in 1981, at age 21.[33]

Later career

Complex systems and cellular automata

File:Stephen Wolfram 2.jpg
Stephen Wolfram in his office at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton.

In 1983, Wolfram left for the School of Natural Sciences of the

Turing complete, which was later proved correct.[52]

A 1985 letter from Feynman to Wolfram also appears in Feynman's letters. In it, in response to Wolfram writing to him that he was thinking about creating some kind of institute where he might study complex systems, Feynman tells Wolfram, "You do not understand ordinary people", and advises him "find a way to do your research with as little contact with non-technical people as possible."[53]

In the mid-1980s, Wolfram worked on simulations of physical processes (such as

University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign[56] and, in 1987, the journal Complex Systems.[56]
As the first journal in the field, Complex Systems has published many papers over the course of three decades. Complex Systems has developed a broad base of readers and contributors from academia, industry, government and the general public in over 50 countries around the world.

Symbolic Manipulation Program

Main article:
Symbolic Manipulation Program

Wolfram led the development of the

Symbolic Manipulation Program) in the Caltech physics department during 1979–1981. A dispute with the administration over the intellectual property rights regarding SMP—patents, copyright, and faculty involvement in commercial ventures—eventually caused him to resign from Caltech.[57]
SMP was further developed and marketed commercially by Inference Corp. of Los Angeles during 1983–1988.

Institute for Advanced Study

In 1983, Wolfram joined the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. But by that time, he was no longer interested in particle physics. Instead, he began pursuing what he viewed as more creative areas — specifically, cellular automata. Wolfram methodically analyzed sets of rules, developing a classification system that rated the complexity of various cellular automata — all with the intention of clarifying the way we view complexity in the real world. In Wolfram's mind, studying the results of cellular-automata runs on the computer could unlock deep truths about the universe itself.[58]

Wolfram's cellular-automata work came to be cited in more than 10,000 papers.[58]

Mathematica

Main article:
Mathematica

In 1986, Wolfram left the

University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign where he founded their Center for Complex Systems Research and started to develop the computer algebra system Mathematica, which was first released on 23 June 1988, when he left academia. In 1987, he founded Wolfram Research which continues to develop and market the program.[4]

Near the end of Sybil Wolfram's life, as part of her research for In-laws and Outlaws, she used her son's program Mathematica to analyze her data.[23]

Wolfram's younger brother, Conrad Wolfram, serves as CEO of Wolfram Research Europe, Ltd.[59][60]

A New Kind of Science

Main article: A New Kind of Science

From 1992 to 2002, he worked on his controversial book A New Kind of Science,[4][61] which presents an empirical study of simple computational systems. Additionally, it argues that for fundamental reasons these types of systems, rather than traditional mathematics, are needed to model and understand complexity in nature. Wolfram's conclusion is that the universe is discrete in its nature, and runs on fundamental laws which can be described as simple programs. He predicts that a realization of this within the scientific communities will have a major and revolutionary influence on physics, chemistry and biology and the majority of the scientific areas in general, which is the reason for the book's title.

Since the release of the book in 2002,[2] Wolfram has split his time between developing Mathematica and encouraging people to get involved with the subject matter of A New Kind of Science by giving talks, holding conferences, and starting a summer school devoted to the topic.[62]

Beginning in May 2017 (the 15th anniversary of its hardcover publication), a free

electronic version of A New Kind of Science was launched that includes complete access and high-resolution images.[63]

Wolfram axiom

The Wolfram axiom is the result of a computer exploration in A New Kind of Science looking for the shortest single axiom equivalent to the axioms of Boolean algebra (or propositional calculus). The result[64] of his search was an axiom with six NAND operations and three variables equivalent to Boolean algebra:

where the vertical bar represents the NAND logical operation (also known as the Sheffer stroke). The 25 candidates are precisely the set of Sheffer identities of length less or equal to 15 elements (excluding mirror images) that have no noncommutative models of size less or equal to 4 (variables).[65]

Applications of A New Kind of Science

In 2003, Wolfram hosted the first Wolfram Summer School at

Pisa, Italy. In 2012, the program was held at Curry College in Milton, Massachusetts. Since 2013, the Wolfram Summer School has been held annually at Bentley University in Waltham, Massachusetts
.

In A New Kind of Science, Wolfram found what was then the simplest known universal Turing machine — with 2 states and 5 colors. However, he also did an extensive search of simpler Turing machines and in doing that, found a much simpler candidate for universality, a 2,3 Turing machine. On 14 May 2007, (the fifth anniversary of the publication of A New Kind of Science), Wolfram announced a $25,000 prize for the first person to determine whether or not the 2,3 Turing machine was actually universal or not, and could provide proof. Five months after the contest's announcement, an undergraduate student from Birmingham, UK, successfully found the 2,3 Turing machine to be universal and provided a 40-page paper[68] to prove his findings.[69]

Wolfram Alpha computational knowledge engine

Main article:
Wolfram Alpha

In March 2009, Wolfram announced Wolfram|Alpha, an

application programming interface allows other applications to extend and enhance Alpha.[72] Wolfram believes that as Wolfram Alpha comes into common use, "It will raise the level of scientific things that the average person can do."[73]

Wolfram Alpha is one of the answer engines behind

Siri answering factual questions.[76]

Touchpress

Main article: Touchpress

In 2010, Wolfram co-founded Touchpress along with Theodore Gray, Max Whitby, and John Cromie. The company specialised in creating in-depth premium apps and games covering a wide range of educational subjects designed for children, parents, students, and educators. Since the launch, Touchpress has published more than 100 apps.[77]

Wolfram Language

Main article: Wolfram Language

In March 2014, at the annual

Mathematica, it was not officially named until 2014.[79] Wolfram's son, Christopher Wolfram, appeared on the program of SXSW giving a live-coding demonstration using Wolfram Language[80] and has blogged about Wolfram Language for Wolfram Research.[81]

On 8 December 2015, Wolfram published the book "An Elementary Introduction to the Wolfram Language" to introduce people with no knowledge of programming to the Wolfram Language and the kind of computation it allows.[82] The release of the second edition of the book[83] coincided with a "CEO for hire" competition during the 2017 Collision tech conference.[84]

Wolfram Physics Project

Main article:
Wolfram Physics Project

In April 2020, Wolfram announced the

Wolfram Physics Project as an effort to reduce and explain all the laws of physics within a paradigm of a hypergraph that is transformed by minimal rewriting rules which obey the Church-Rosser property.[85][86]
The effort is a continuation of the ideas he originally described in A New Kind of Science.

The foundational idea is the exploration of the

physical law.[87]

Wolfram claims that "From an extremely simple model, we're able to reproduce special relativity, general relativity and the core results of quantum mechanics". Physicists are generally unimpressed with Wolfram's claim, and state that Wolfram's results are non-quantitative and arbitrary.[88][89]

In popular culture

Beginning in 2017, Wolfram began to live stream internal Wolfram Language development meetings.[90] During these meetings, viewers are encouraged to submit questions and comments related to the development of the programming language. Viewers have been known to suggest new functions that they would like to see developed, name new functions, and help solve complex issues faced by Stephen and the Wolfram Research development team. These live streamed meetings can be viewed on Twitch, YouTube Live, and Facebook Live. All archived live streams can also be accessed on his personal website.

Personal interests and activities

The significance data has on the products Wolfram creates transfers into his own life. He has an extensive log of personal analytics, including emails received and sent, keystrokes made, meetings and events attended, phone calls, even physical movement dating back to the 1980s. In the preface of A New Kind of Science, he noted that he recorded over one-hundred million keystrokes and one-hundred mouse miles. He has stated "[personal analytics] can give us a whole new dimension to experiencing our lives".[91]

Both Stephen Wolfram and Christopher Wolfram were involved in helping create the alien language for the film Arrival, for which they used the Wolfram Language.[92][93][94]

Since 2018, Wolfram has been producing a podcast,[95] where he discusses topics ranging from the history of science to the future of civilization and ethics of AI.

In 2019, Wolfram was part of a panel of four witnesses who testified before the US Senate Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, Innovation, and the Internet in a hearing titled "Optimizing for Engagement: Understanding the Use of Persuasive Technology on Internet Platforms."[96]

Bibliography

  • A Project to Find the Fundamental Theory of Physics (2020), Publisher: Wolfram Media,
    ISBN 978-1-57955-035-6
  • Adventures of a Computational Explorer (2019)
  • Idea Makers: Personal Perspectives on the Lives & Ideas of Some Notable People (2016)[97]
  • Elementary Introduction to the Wolfram Language (2015)[98]
  • A New Kind of Science (2002)
  • The Mathematica Book (multiple editions)
  • Cellular Automata and Complexity: Collected Papers (1994)
  • Theory and Applications of Cellular Automata (1986)

References

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  3. ^ Wolfram, Stephen (1980). Some topics in theoretical high-energy physics. Caltech Library (phd). California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
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  5. ^ My Life in Technology—As Told at the Computer History Museum
  6. ^ "Biographical Facts for Stephen Wolfram". www.stephenwolfram.com. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  7. ^ "Stephen Wolfram". Wolfram Alpha. Retrieved 15 May 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ "Stephen Wolfram: 'I am an information pack rat'". New Scientist. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
  9. ^ List of Fellows of the American Mathematical Society, retrieved 1 September 2013.
  10. ^ The Universal Mind: The Evolution of Machine Intelligence and Human Psychology, Xiphias Press, 1 Sep 2016, Michael Peragine
  11. ^ a b Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon, Oxford Times, Thursday 21 September 2006.
  12. ^ PHYSICIST AWARDED 'GENIUS' PRIZE FINDS REALITY IN INVISIBLE WORLD, by GLADWIN HILL, New York Times, 24 May 1981
  13. ^ Howard Gottlieb Archival Research Center: Wolfram, Hugo (1925- ): "The Hugo Wolfram collection consists of manuscripts by Wolfram for novels, short stories, and essays."
  14. ^ Kirkus review of Into a Neutral Country, 1969
  15. ^ Hugo Wolfram. 1925- , Jüdische Schriftstellerinnen und Schriftsteller in Westfalen.
  16. ^ Philosophical Logic: An Introduction by Sybil Wolfram, 2014 [1989].
  17. ^ In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England by Sybil Wolfram, 1987.
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  22. ^ Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902–1949), Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon. Trans.: "The vegetative genesis of neurotic anxiety and drug elimination"
  23. ^ a b Smith, M. E.. (1993). Obituary. Anthropology Today, 9(6), 22–22. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2783224
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  28. ^ "My Life in Technology—As Told at the Computer History Museum". stephenwolfram.com. 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
  29. ^ A Speech for (High-School) Graduates by Stephen Wolfram (a commencement speech for Stanford Online High School), StephenWolfram.com, 9 June 2014: "You know, as it happens, I myself never officially graduated from high school, and this is actually the first high school graduation I've ever been to."
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  31. ^ Crowell, Rachel J. (23 September 2019). "Wolfram Blogging". AMS Blogs. American Mathematical Society. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
  32. ^ Complexity: A Guided Tour by Melanie Mitchell, 2009, p. 151: "In the early 1980s, Stephen Wolfram, a physicist working at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, became fascinated by cellular automata and the patterns they make. Wolfram is one of those legendary child prodigies people like to tell stories about. Born in London in 1959, Wolfram published his first physics paper at 15. Two years later, in the summer after his first year at Oxford, . . . Wolfram wrote a paper in the field of "quantum chromodynamics" that attracted the attention of Nobel-Prize-winning physicist Murray Gell-Mann, who invited Wolfram to join his group at Caltech…"
  33. ^ a b Arndt, Michael (17 May 2002). "Stephen Wolfram's Simple Science". BusinessWeek. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
  34. ^ Stephen Wolfram: 'The textbook has never interested me': The British child genius who abandoned physics to devote himself to coding and the cosmos, by Zoë Corbyn, The Guardian, Saturday 28 June 2014: "He entered Oxford University at 17 without A-levels and left around a year later without graduating. He was bored and he had been invited to cross the pond by the prestigious California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to do a PhD. "I had written a bunch of papers and so was pretty well known by that time,"" ...
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  37. ^ Application
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  40. ^ S. Wolfram (1973). The Physics of Subatomic Particles (PDF).
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  96. ^ "Optimizing for Engagement: Understanding the Use of Persuasive Technology on Internet Platforms". Engadget. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
  97. ^ 'Idea Makers' tackles scientific thinkers' big ideas and personal lives / Human side of science emphasized in new book by Tom Siegfried, Science News, 13 August 2016.
  98. ^ Stephen Wolfram Aims to Democratize His Software by Steve Lohr, The New York Times, 14 December 2015.

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Stephen Wolfram.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stephen Wolfram.
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