Computing

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the activity involving computing machinery. For the magazines, see Computing (magazine) and Compute!

Computer simulation
Computer simulation, one of the main cross-computing methodologies

Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating

information systems, information technology, and software engineering.[2]

The term computing is also

synonymous with counting and calculating. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers.[3]

Early vacuum tube Turing complete computer
ENIAC, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer

History

Main article: History of computing
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of computing.

The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before numeral systems. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the abacus, and it is thought to have been invented in Babylon circa between 2700–2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today.

The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by C. E. Wynn-Williams.[4] Claude Shannon's 1938 paper "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits" then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations.

The concept of a

microcomputer revolution.[14]

Computer

Main articles:
Glossary of computer terms

A computer is a machine that manipulates

data according to a set of instructions called a computer program.[15] The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an algorithm.[16] Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to the CPU type.[17]

The execution

semantics
of the instructions.

Computer hardware

Main article: Computer hardware

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the central processing unit, memory, and input/output.[18] Computational logic and computer architecture are key topics in the field of computer hardware.[19][20]

Computer software

Main article:
Computer software

Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, as well as its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system.[

instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast with the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible.[21]

Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.

System software

Main article: System software

System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes

window systems, and firmware. Frequently used development tools such as compilers, linkers, and debuggers are classified as system software.[22] System software and middleware
manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software.

Application software

Main article: Application software

Application software, also known as an application or an app, is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include

media players. Many application programs deal principally with documents.[23] Apps may be bundled
with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user.

Application software applies the power of a particular

Linux gaming. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as killer applications.[24]

Computer network

Main article: Computer network

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers

communications protocol used, scale, topology
, and organizational scope.

Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.[26]

Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology, or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.[27]

Internet

Main article: Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected

Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web and the infrastructure to support email.[citation needed
]

Computer programming

Main articles: Computer programming and Software engineering

Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language, which is an artificial language that is often more restrictive than natural languages, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine.[citation needed]

Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development.[

open source contributor to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the proof of concept to launch a new killer application.[citation needed
]

Computer programmer

Main articles:
Software developer

A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of

software developer, software engineer, computer scientist, or software analyst. However, members of these professions typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming.[28]

Computer industry

Main articles:
Computer Industry and Software industry

The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and

computer networking infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including system administration and maintenance.[citation needed
]

The software industry includes businesses engaged in development, maintenance, and publication of software. The industry also includes software services, such as training, documentation, and consulting.[citation needed]

Sub-disciplines of computing

Computer engineering

Main article: Computer engineering

Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software.[29] Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.[30]

Software engineering

Main article: Software engineering

Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software.[31][32][33] It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived software crisis at the time.[34][35][36] Software development, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.[37]

Computer science

Main articles: Computer science and Computer scientist

Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.[38]

Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in

complex systems. The field of human–computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans. [citation needed
]

Cybersecurity

Main article: Computer security

The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes information and data privacy, preventing disruption of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data.[39]

Data science

Main article: Data science

Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.[40] Data mining, big data, statistics, and machine learning are all interwoven with data science.[41]

Information systems

Main article: Information system

Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute

data.[42][43][44] The ACM
's Computing Careers describes IS as:

"A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required."[45]

The study of IS bridges business and computer science, using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline.[46][47][48] The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society[49][50] while IS emphasizes functionality over design.[51]

Information technology

Main article: Information technology

Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and

computer services.[54][55]

Research and emerging technologies

Further information: List of unsolved problems in computer science

nanoscale superconductors.[60]

Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.[61] IBM has created an integrated circuit with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP).[62] One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.[63]

Another field of research is spintronics. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup.[64] Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine photonics and spintronics.[65][66] There is also research ongoing on combining plasmonics, photonics, and electronics.[67]

Cloud computing

Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of Software as a Service, Platforms as a Service, and Infrastructure as a Service, depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.[68] It allows individual users or small business to benefit from economies of scale.

One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.[69]

However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.[70]

Quantum computing

Quantum computing is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.[71] Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses qubits. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as quantum entanglement, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.[72] Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in molecular modeling. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Computing Classification System". Digital Library. Association for Computing Machinery.
  2. ^ "Computing Careers & Disciplines: A Quick Guide for Prospective Students and Career Advisors (2nd edition, ©2020)". CERIC. 17 January 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  3. ^ "The History of Computing". mason.gmu.edu. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
  4. doi:10.1098/rspa.1931.0102
  5. ISBN 9781139643771. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
  6. ISBN 9783527340538
    .
  7. ^ Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2 ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society, pp. 34–35
  8. ISBN 9780470508923
    .
  9. ^ "1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum.
  10. ISBN 9783540342588
    .
  11. ^ "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  12. JSTOR 24923169
    .
  13. ISBN 9781107434493
    .
  14. ISBN 9780841228610
    . The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.
  15. ^ "Definition of computer". PCMAG. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  16. ^ Denny, Jory (16 October 2020). "What is an algorithm? How computers know what to do with data". The Conversation. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  17. ISBN 978-0-19-968897-5
    , retrieved 5 February 2024
  18. ^ "Common CPU components – The CPU – Eduqas – GCSE Computer Science Revision – Eduqas – BBC Bitesize". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  19. ISSN 1471-2946
    .
  20. PMID 29507522
    .
  21. ^ "Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0". Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
  22. ^ Rouse, Margaret (March 2019). "system software". WhatIs.com. TechTarget.
  23. ^ "Basic Computer Terms". web.pdx.edu. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  24. ^ "The Fibreculture Journal : 25 | FCJ-181 There's a History for That: Apps and Mundane Software as Commodity". Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  25. ^ "Computer network definition". Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  26. ^ "TCP/IP: What is TCP/IP and How Does it Work?". Networking. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  27. ^ Dhavaleswarapu, Ratna. (2019). The Pallid Image of Globalization in Kiran Desai’s The Inheritance of Loss. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  28. ^ "5 Skills Developers Need Beyond Writing Code". 23 January 2019.
  29. ^ IEEE Computer Society; ACM (12 December 2004). Computer Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering (PDF). p. iii. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2012. Computer System engineering has traditionally been viewed as a combination ofboth electronic engineering (EE) and computer science (CS).
  30. ^ Trinity College Dublin. "What is Computer System Engineering". Retrieved 21 April 2006., "Computer engineers need not only to understand how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car contains many separate computer systems for controlling such things as the engine timing, the brakes and the air bags. To be able to design and implement such a car, the computer engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of all these various subsystems & how they interact.
  31. ISBN 978-0-7695-2330-9
    .
  32. ^ ACM (2006). "Computing Degrees & Careers". ACM. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
  33. ISBN 978-0-8493-7228-5
    . Retrieved 21 January 2011.
  34. ISBN 978-81-7758-530-8
    . Retrieved 10 January 2013.
  35. ^ Peter, Naur; Randell, Brian (7–11 October 1968). Software Engineering: Report of a conference sponsored by the NATO Science Committee (PDF). Garmisch, Germany: Scientific Affairs Division, NATO. Retrieved 26 December 2008.
  36. ^ Randell, Brian (10 August 2001). "The 1968/69 NATO Software Engineering Reports". Brian Randell's University Homepage. The School of the Computer Sciences, Newcastle University. Retrieved 11 October 2008. The idea for the first NATO Software Engineering Conference, and in particular that of adopting the then practically unknown term software engineering as its (deliberately provocative) title, I believe came originally from Professor Fritz Bauer.
  37. ^ "Software Engineering – Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge (SWEBOK)". International Organization for Standardization. ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  38. ^ "WordNet Search – 3.1". Wordnetweb.princeton.edu. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
  39. doi:10.15394/jdfsl.2017.1476
    .
  40. ISSN 0001-0782
    .
  41. S2CID 207595944
    .
  42. ^ "Definition of Application Landscape". Software Engineering for Business Information Systems (sebis). 21 January 2009. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
  43. ^ Denning, Peter (July 1999). "COMPUTER SCIENCE: THE DISCIPLINE". Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition). The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines
  44. ^ Jessup, Leonard M.; Valacich, Joseph S. (2008). Information Systems Today (3rd ed.). Pearson Publishing. pp. –, 416.
  45. ^ "Computing Degrees & Careers " Information Systems". Association for Computing Machinery. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
  46. ISBN 1-58113-798-2
    . In 1999, Clemson University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science
  47. S2CID 52847480
    . From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields
  48. ^ "Bachelor of Information Sciences (Computer Science)". Massey University. 24 February 2006. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects
  49. ISSN 1937-4771
    .
  50. ISSN 1937-4771
    . In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach
  51. S2CID 14331332
    . Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with ... Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically.
  52. ^ Daintith, John, ed. (2009), "IT", A Dictionary of Physics, Oxford University Press,
    ISBN 9780199233991
    , retrieved 1 August 2012     (subscription required)
  53. ^ "Free on-line dictionary of computing (FOLDOC)". Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  54. ^ Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (January 2011), "Information technology", A Dictionary of Media and Communication (first ed.), Oxford University Press,
    ISBN 978-0-19-956875-8
    , retrieved 1 August 2012     (subscription required)
  55. ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7
    . Retrieved 12 May 2013..
  56. PMID 19734926. supplementary information: DNA origami on photolithography
  57. S2CID 4388493
    .
  58. S2CID 8155660
    .
  59. ^ "World record: Calculations with 14 quantum bits". www.nanowerk.com.
  60. nanometers
    . Access date 31 March 2010
  61. MIT
  62. ^ Sebastian Anthony (Dec 10,2012), "IBM creates first commercially viable silicon nanophotonic chip", accessdate=2012-12-10
  63. ^ Open Compute: Does the data center have an open future? accessdate=2013-08-11
  64. ^ "Putting electronics in a spin". 8 August 2007. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
  65. ^ "Merging spintronics with photonics" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
  66. PMID 30631067
    .
  67. PMID 31819898
    .
  68. ^ "The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing" (PDF). U.S. Department of Commerce. September 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  69. ISSN 1460-2067
    .
  70. S2CID 16233643
    .
  71. S2CID 119473861
    .
  72. S2CID 59577352
    .

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computing&oldid=1220753386"