Supreme War Council
The Supreme War Council was a central command based in
Formation
Also, following the Italian defeat at the
Japan and Russia were not to be included, and the Italians and French, worried that Salonika (and with it the only chance of liberating Serbia) might be evacuated, wanted issues confined to the Western Front.[3]
Permanent Military Representatives
Each Allied nation would be represented by their head of government, and an appointed senior military officer known as the Permanent Military Representative (PMR). The French PMR was Ferdinand Foch, later replaced by Maxime Weygand and Joseph Joffre. The British were represented by Sir Henry Hughes Wilson until 1918, then Charles Sackville-West. Italy was represented by Luigi Cadorna.
The United States, which was "an Associated Power" of the Allies, was not involved with the political structure, but sent a Permanent Military Representative, General Tasker H. Bliss.[4]
General Wilson and his staff conducted numerous research projects into offensives against Turkey, culminating in "Joint Note# 12".[5]
Meetings
Although the military council sat about once a week (90 meetings took place between November 1917 and November 1919), formal Interallied Conferences with Prime Ministers in attendance took place ten times during the lifespan of the Supreme War Council (SWC). Those meetings are listed below.[6]
Wartime meetings
5-7 November 1917
At the
29 Nov to 3 Dec 1917
The first Interallied Conference in France took place in Paris at the Quai d'Orsay
29 Jan to 2 Feb 1918
The third SWC Interallied Conference was held at Versailles, just outside Paris.[14] The Council agreed to a defensive plan on the Western Front for 1918 (because the Germans were being reinforced by troops from the now defunct Eastern Front, whilst US troops would not be deployed in strength until later in the year), with an offensive operation against Turkey.[15][16]
Between the third and fourth SWC meetings, resistance to the General Reserve by British
13–15 March 1918
The fourth SWC Interallied Conference was held in London. Here, the General Reserve plan was cancelled.[24] It was thought it would take three months to reposition divisions for the Reserve, when, in fact, the German attack was just 8 days away. This caused a great debate between General Ferdinand Foch and Prime Minister Clemenceau, and Prime Minister Lloyd George considered replacing Field Marshal Haig.[25][26] In the absence of a General Reserve, the allies had to rely on a verbal mutual support agreement between Field Marshal Haig and General Petain. The council also put out an official statement about the Brest-Litovsk "peace" treaty made between Germany and Russia.[27] Prime Minister Clemenceau made another attempt at establishing unity of command but was rebuffed by Lloyd George, who said Foch's appointment to the Executive War Board had been a "great concession". General Henri Mordacq, Clemenceau's aide, said Britain only turned for unity of command at the last minute when her armies were about to be thrown into the sea.[28]
The Allied Reserve eventually slipped from the agenda as the Commanders-in-Chief,
1–2 May 1918
The fifth SWC Conference was held in Versailles and
At the prefect's (police chief's ?) house in Abbeville, at 10 am on 2 May, a secret meeting took place to discuss the matter of a B.E.F. embarkment from the Channel Ports.[33][34] In a time of crisis, if the Germans pushed the English toward the Channel Ports, should the B.E.F. retreat to England or move south and link up with the French? It was known that both Field Marshal Haig, and General Robertson's replacement, General Henry Wilson, both favored embarkation. This matter was discussed by the military generals before the official conference started. General Foch, who was present, would have none of it. When asked, he repeatedly answered, "Ne lachez pas pied" (Don't let go),[35] and "Ni l'un ni l'autre. Cramponnez partout" (Neither. Cling Everywhere).[36] At the start of the war, instructions from Field Marshal Kitchener to Field Marshal French (B.E.F. Commander at the time) authorized him, in the event of "unusual circumstances", to retreat to the Channel Ports, but not to evacuate. "The view taken at Abbeville was that the British should retire behind the Somme and abandon the Channel ports rather than lose touch with the French."[37][38] Henry Wilson says this was unanimously agreed to.[39] Because of this, instructions were reinforced on 21 June 1918 to order Field Marshal Haig to retreat south and link up with the French.[40] Remarkably, twenty two years later, Lord Gort faced the same exact predicament when the Germans invaded France and the armored spearheads of the Wehrmacht advanced rapidly toward the Channel Ports.[41] In defiance of orders, Gort asked for an evacuation, and he ordered the B.E.F. to retreat to the Channel Ports, where a hastily arranged embarkation took place.[42] Although the Miracle of Dunkirk may have saved the British Army, Lord Gort was sidelined for the rest of his career.
1–3 June 1918
The sixth SWC Conference took place in Versailles against the background of the German Bluecher Offensive which had begun on 27 May. Here, the United States was asked for more reinforcements. Other issues discussed were amalgamation (the integration of US troops with the B.E.F.), and the pooling of allied supplies.[43]
Allied pessimism prevailed at this meeting. French divisions were down to 50% strength,[44][45] and the British were not faring much better.[46] The British, French and Italian Prime Ministers signed a letter to President Wilson that said, "there is a great danger of the war being lost ... owing to the allied reserves being exhausted before those of the enemy", and that the United States would have to raise 100 divisions, requiring the call up of 300,000 conscripts a month, to raise an army of 4 million men.[47][48] General Pershing also cabled Washington D.C., saying, "It should be most fully realized at home that the time has come for us to take up the brunt of the war and that France and England are not going to be able to keep their armies at present strength very much longer."[49] Also, "If the Allies had seen this a year or even six months earlier and had given us assistance in shipping"..."they could have assisted in the formation of a powerful American Army". Instead, "the number of training infantrymen in America will be practically exhausted by the middle of July, they [the allies] still insisted on a program of infantry personnel", and, "The Prime Ministers and General Foch appeal most urgently for trained or even untrained men." In his memoirs, Pershing says about raising the army, "In its execution as a whole, the achievement stands out as a lasting monument to our War Department, marred only by the lack of foresight that made it necessary to send over untrained men and units in precipitate haste."[50] Lord Milner had commented at a meeting of the X Committee on 17 May that some of the troops "hardly knew how to handle a rifle".[51]
Originally planned for an army of 500,000 men, the US draft had to be expanded four times before a 4 million man army could be raised.
At the meeting, amidst concerns that—following the
2–4 July 1918
The seventh SWC Conference, held at Versailles, was attended by British Dominion Prime Ministers from Canada, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. This was the most difficult SWC yet, with Lloyd George angry with the French at completely directing the war and the French upset with Lloyd George's plan to reduce British forces on the front to reinforce Palestine.[53] General Foch wanted a commitment that the British would keep their strength at 59 divisions, and he wanted to create a sixtieth from category "B" troops (those unfit for combat, but suitable for home defence). Lloyd George said manpower resources made this impossible.[54] Meanwhile, the mission to Murmansk moved forward.[55]
5 October 1918
The British received news that Germany, Austria and Turkey had informed the US Government that they were ready to negotiate peace on the basis of President Wilson's Fourteen Points,
30 Oct to 10 Nov 1918
The eighth, and longest SWC Conference took place in Versailles. Here, the Armistice terms were drafted for the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Germany.[56]
Peacetime meetings
During the Paris Peace Negotiations, which took place from 12 January to 26 June 1919, the Supreme War Council became the "Council of Ten" in mid January, and later the "Council of Four" (Big Four) in mid March, as President Wilson and Prime Ministers Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Orlando did most of the work constructing the Treaty of Versailles.[57] As the host nation, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau presided over the meetings.[58]
14–16 January 1920 in Paris, France
This meeting was held four days after the ratification of the
6–16 July 1920 in Spa, Belgium
This was attended by German delegates to discuss war reparations. Related documents:
- "Agreement between the Allies for the settlement of certain questions as to the application of the Treaties of Peace and complementary agreements with Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria"[59]
- "Protocol of the Conference at Spa on July 16, 1920"[60]
- "Inter-Allied Agreement in regard to advance to the German Government in accordance with Protocol of July 16 regarding coal deliveries"[61]
References
Constructs such as named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (June 2023) ) |
- ISBN 9781317895497.
- ISBN 9781139448475.
- ^ Woodward, 1998, pp191-2
- ^ Woodward, 1998, pp191-2
- ^ Woodward, 1998, pg194-5
- ^ The Supreme War Council, pgs. 36 & 37
- ^ Lloyd George, David, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol IV, pgs. 491-503
- ^ National Archives, CAB 23-4, pgs. 298-300 of 579
- ^ Callwell, Sir C.E. "Field Marshall Henry Wilson", Volume II, pg. 23
- ^ Lloyd George, David, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol V, pg. 215
- ^ Roskill, "Hankey Man of Secrets, Vol. I", pg. 468
- ^ Supreme War Council, pgs. 374-380
- ^ French, David, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916-1918, pg. 215
- ^ Lloyd George, David, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol V, pgs. 240-250
- ^ Foch, Ferdinand, The Memoirs of Marshal Foch, pgs. 273-276
- ^ Powell, Geoffrey, "Plumer: The Soldier's General", pg. 249
- ^ Woodward, 1998, pp197
- ^ Ibid, pg. 249
- ^ Foch technically remained Chief of the French General Staff for the rest of 1918, even after becoming Allied Generalissimo in late March. The job was actually carried out by General Henri Alby, who was "acting Chief of the General Staff". See Chief of Staff of the French Army#Office holders.
- ^ Wright, Peter, At The Supreme War Council, pgs. 59-61
- ^ Mordacq, Henri, Unity of Command: How it Was Achieved, pgs. 31-32
- ^ Mordacq, pg. 34
- ^ Mordacq, pg. 37
- ^ Foch, pgs. 276-280
- ^ IBID, pgs. 285 & 286
- ^ Amery, Leo, "My Political Life", pg. 145
- ^ Supreme War Council, pgs. 40 & 41
- ^ Mordacq, pgs. 39-40
- ^ Lagarde, Lieutenant Benoît. "Grand Quartier Général des Armées Alliées, 1914–1918" (PDF). Sous-Serie GR 15 NN – Répertoire Numérique Detaillé (in French). Service Historique de la Défense. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
- ^ Lloyd George, David, Vol. V, pgs. 440-441
- ^ Palmer, Frederick, Bliss, peacemaker, the life and letters of General Tasker Howard Bliss, pgs. 261-262
- ^ National Archives, CAB 23-5, pg. 194 of 475, minute 6
- ^ Hankey, Maurice, "The Supreme Command, Vol. II, pgs. 796-797
- ^ Roskill, Stephen, "Hankey: Man of Secrets", pg. 536
- ^ Lloyd George, David, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. VI, pgs. 41 & 42
- ^ Churchill, Winston, The World Crisis, Vol. II, pg. 444
- ^ Marlowe, John, "Milner: Apostle of Empire", pg. 308 (quoting Lord Milner's memorandum)
- ^ X Committee Minutes, CAB 23-17, pgs. 41-42 of 206
- ^ Callwell, Vol II, pg. 98
- ^ Cooper, Duff, "Haig, The Second Volume", London: Faber and Faber, 1936, pg. 453 (par. 2)
- ^ Colville, "Man of Valour", pgs. 125, 126
- ^ Ibid, pgs. 216, 217
- ^ Marlowe, pg. 307
- ^ X Committee Minutes, pg. 69 of 206
- ^ Edmunds, Sir James, "History of the Great War, Vol. VIII", pg. 21
- ^ Powell, pg. 256
- ^ Pershing, John J., My Experiences in the World War, Vol. II, pg. 80
- ^ Lloyd George, David, Vol. V, pg. 446
- ^ Pershing, pg. 82
- ^ Ibid, pg. 84
- ^ X Committee Minutes, pg. 23 of 206
- ^ Grigg 2002, p372
- ^ O'Brien, "Milner", pg. 310
- ^ Greenhalgh, Elizabeth, Foch in Command, pg. 383
- ^ Palmer, Frederick, pgs. 305-306
- ^ Supreme War Council, pgs. 47-57
- ^ Shotwell, James, "At the Paris Peace Conference", pgs. 36-37, 117
- ^ The Times, 25 November 1929, pg. 16, column 4
- ^ LG/F/148/4/1 in Lloyd George papers, see /www.portcullis.parliament.uk
- ^ LG/F/148/4/2 in Lloyd George papers, see /www.portcullis.parliament.uk
- ^ LG/F/148/4/3 in Lloyd George papers, see /www.portcullis.parliament.uk
Sources
- Amery, Leo, My Political Life, Vol II, 1914-1929, London: Hutchinson, 1953
- Callwell, Sir C.E., Field Marshal Sir Henry Wilson, his life and times, Volume II, London: Cassell, 1927
- Churchill, Winston, The World Crisis, 1916-1918, Volume II, London: Thornton, 1927
- Colville, J. R., Man of Valour, London: Collins, 1972
- Cooper, Duff, Haig, The Second Volume, London: Faber and Faber, 1936
- Edmonds, Sir James E, History of the Great War, Vol VIII, Military Operations, the March Offensive, 1918, London: MacMillan, 1935
- Foch, Ferdinand (translated by Colonel Bentley Mott), The Memoirs of Marshal Foch, London: Willam Heinemann, 1931
- French, David, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916-1918, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995
- Greenhalgh, Elizabeth (2005-12-08). Victory through Coalition: Britain and France during the First World War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139448475.
- Hankey, Maurice, The Supreme Command, Volume II (1914-1918), London: Allen, 1961
- Grigg, John (2002). Lloyd George: War Leader, 1916–1918. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0571277490.
- Lloyd George, David, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. IV, Boston: Little Brown, 1934
- Lloyd George, David, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. V, Boston: Little Brown, 1936
- Lloyd George, David, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. VI, Boston: Little Brown, 1937
- Marlowe, John, Milner: Apostle of Empire, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1976
- Mordacq, Henri, Unity of Command: How it Was Achieved, Paris: Tallandier, 1929 (translated from French)
- O'Brien, Terence, Milner, London: Constable, 1979
- Palmer, Frederick, Bliss, peacemaker; the life and letters of General Tasker Howard Bliss, Freeport, NY: Libraries Press, 1934
- Pershing, John J., My Experiences in the World War, Vol. II, New York: Frederick Stokes, 1931
- Powell, Geoffrey, Plumer: The Soldier's General, London: Leo Cooper, 1990
- Renshaw, Patrick (2014-07-10). The Longman Companion to America in the Era of the Two World Wars, 1910-1945. Routledge. ISBN 9781317895497.
- Roskill, Stephen, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Volume I, 1877-1918, London: Collins, 1970
- Shotwell, James, At the Paris Peace Conference, New York: MacMillan, 1937
- The Times (of London) archive (requires a subscription)
- Woodward, David R., Field Marshal Sir William Robertson, Westport Connecticut & London: Praeger, 1998, ISBN 0-275-95422-6
- Wright, Peter, At the Supreme War Council, New York: G.P. Puntam, 1921
- The Supreme War Council, First World War.com, accessed 6 August 2009
- author unknown, A League of Nations, Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1918 (OCLC Number: 5455525)
- UK National Archives online
- Lagarde, Lieutenant Benoît. "Grand Quartier Général des Armées Alliées, 1914–1918" (PDF). Sous-Serie GR 15 NN – Répertoire Numérique Detaillé (in French). Service Historique de la Défense. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
- LG/F/148/4/1, 2 & 3 in Lloyd George papers, see UK Parliament Archives
Further reading
- Grant, 3rd, U.S. "America's Part in the Supreme War Council during the World War" Records of the Columbia Historical Society (1928), Vol. 29/30, pp. 295–340 online
- author unknown, Records of the American Section of the Supreme War Council, 1917-1919, Washington D.C.: National Archives, 1973
- Lonergan, Thomas, It Might Have Been Lost, New York: Putnam, 1929
- History.com, Allies Argue Over U.S. Troops Joining Battle on Western Front
- "United Kingdom National Archives, CAB 24-58", Notes on the American Army, July 16, 1918: pgs. 114-116 of 390
- French, David, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916-1918: Supreme War Council meetings, pgs. 214-217