United States environmental law
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United States environmental law concerns legal standards to protect human health and improve the natural environment of the United States. While subject to criticism at home and abroad on issues of protection, enforcement, and over-regulation, the country remains an important source of environmental legal expertise and experience.
Scope
The
History
The history of environmental law in the US can be traced back to early roots in common law doctrines, for example, the law of nuisance and the public trust doctrine. The first environmental statute was the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, which has been largely superseded by the Clean Water Act (CWA). However, most current major environmental statutes, such as the federal statutes listed above, were passed in the time spanning the late 1960s through the early 1980s. Prior to the passage of these statutes, most federal environmental laws were not nearly as comprehensive.
One lawsuit that has been widely recognized as one of the earliest environmental cases is
Legal sources
Laws from every stratum of the
Federal statutes
Federal regulation
Consistent with the federal statutes that they administer, US federal agencies promulgate regulations in the
Judicial decisions
The federal and state judiciaries have played an important role in the development of environmental law in the United States, in many cases resolving significant controversy regarding the application of federal environmental laws in favor of environmental interests. The decisions of the
Common law
The common law of tort is an important tool for the resolution of environmental disputes that fall beyond the confines of regulated activity. Prior to the modern proliferation of environmental regulation, the doctrines of nuisance (public or private), trespass, negligence, and strict liability apportioned harm and assigned liability for activities that today would be considered pollution and likely governed by regulatory regimes.[10] These doctrines remain relevant, and most recently have been used by plaintiffs seeking to impose liability for the consequences of global climate change.[11]
The common law also continues to play a leading role in American
Administration
In the United States, responsibilities for the administration of environmental laws are divided between numerous federal and state agencies with varying, overlapping, and sometimes conflicting missions. EPA is the most well-known federal agency, with jurisdiction over many of the country's national air, water and waste and hazardous substance programs.
Federal agencies operate within the limits of federal jurisdiction. For example, EPA's jurisdiction under the Clean Water Act is limited to "waters of the United States". In many cases federal laws allow for more stringent regulation by states, and of transfer of certain federally mandated responsibilities from federal to state control. US state governments, therefore, administering state law adopted under state police powers or federal law by delegation, uniformly include environmental agencies.[19] The extent to which state environmental laws are based on or depart from federal law varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
Thus, while a permit to fill non-federal
Enforcement
In the United States, violations of environmental laws are generally
Environmental agencies often include separate enforcement offices, with duties including monitoring permitted activities, performing compliance inspections, issuing citations and prosecuting wrongdoing (civilly or criminally, depending on the violation). EPA's Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance is one such agency. Others, such as the United States Park Police, carry out more traditional law enforcement activities.
Adjudicatory proceedings for environmental violations are often handled by the agencies themselves under the structures of administrative law. In some cases, appeals are also handled internally (for example, EPA's Environmental Appeals Board). Generally, final agency determinations may subsequently be appealed to the appropriate court.
As environmental law becomes more widespread in the United States, another form of enforcement is emerging. Economic sanctions and incentives are the next wave of enforcement techniques. However, other researchers believe that the best way to enforce environmental regulation is to enforce non-environmental laws that can also have positive results for the environment. Some researchers have found that this leads to better environmental performance with bipartisan support [21]
Education
Law schools
In 2023,
Courses and training
Several law schools host
Environmental protection cases
Water
- EI duPont de Nemours & Co. v. Train, 430 U.S. 112 (1977)
- Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc. (2000)
- S. D. Warren Co. v. Maine Board of Environmental Protection (2006)
- Rapanos v. United States (2006)
- County of Maui v. Hawaii Wildlife Fund (2020)
- Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency (2023)
Air pollution
Solid and hazardous waste
- City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey (1978)
- City of Chicago v. Environmental Defense Fund, 511 U.S. 328 (1994)
See also
- US administrative law
- Environmental policy of the United States
- Energy policy of the United States
- US corporate law
Notes
- ^ Phillipe Sands (2003) Principles of International Environmental Law. 2nd Edition. p. xxi Available at [1] Accessed 19 February 2020
- ^ "What is Environmental Law? | Becoming an Environmental Lawyer". Retrieved 2023-06-28.
- ^ "NOUN | National Open University of Nigeria". nou.edu.ng. Retrieved 2023-06-29.
- ^
Carson, Rachel (2002) [1962]. Silent Spring (40th anniversary ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9780618249060.
- ISBN 0-08-037117-5.
- ^ Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, 354 F.2d 608, December 29, 1965.
- ^ Scenic Hudson, Inc. "Scenic Hudson Collection: Records Relating to the Storm King Case, 1963-1981." Archived 2005-12-18 at the Wayback Machine Archives and Special Collections, Marist College, Poughkeepsie, NY.
- ^ See, e.g., Pennsylvania
- ^ See, e.g., Second Circuit Clarifies Superfund Cost Recovery and Liability Issues (analyzing court application of statutory provisions of CERCLA, also known as Superfund.)
- ^ See West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Environmental Law.
- ^ Cases collected at Climatecasechart.com (Common Law Claims)
- ^ "Laws and Regulations". EPA. 2017-09-13.
- PMID 19323818.
- ^ "Regulatory Information By Topic". EPA. 2017-04-05.
- ^ "About Us". Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 2017-10-24.
- ^ "About the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016-03-24.
- ^ "About the Agency". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 2017-10-24.
- ^ "About Us". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 2017-10-24.
- ^ a b "Health and Environmental Agencies of U.S. States and Territories". EPA. 2017-06-29.
- ^ United States. Clean Water Act, sec. 505, 33 U.S.C. § 1365
- ISSN 2045-0052.
- ^ "Best Environmental Law Programs". US News. U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
- ^ See, e.g., Adam Babich, The Apolitical Law School Clinic, 11 Clinical L. Rev. 447 (2005).
External links
- US Environmental Protection Agency
- Environmental Law Institute
- History of Scenic Hudson - the advocacy group which brought the landmark case Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission
- Excerpt from "The Birth of Environmentalism" by Robert E. Taylor
- Federal Environmental Protection Bills - GovTrack.us (GovTrack)