User:A.M.~enwiki/temp/merge Linux into Linux distribution
A Linux distribution is a
To provide a Unix-like environment, Linux distributions contain a set of Unix-like utilities and the libraries needed to support them. In full-featured distributions these are generally taken from the
There are several commercially-backed distributions, such as
History
The history of Linux distributions is closely tied to that of
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Linus_Torvalds.jpeg/220px-Linus_Torvalds.jpeg)
In 1991, work on the
Before the first Linux distributions, a would-be Linux user was required to be something of a Unix expert, not only knowing what libraries and executables were needed to successfully get the system to boot and run, but also important details concerning configuration and placement of files in the system.
Linux distributions began to appear soon after the Linux kernel was first used by individuals outside the original Linux programmers. They were more interested in developing the operating system than they were in application programs, the user interface, or convenient packaging.
Early distributions included:
- H J Lu's "Boot-root" a two disk pair with the kernel and the absolute minimal tools to get started.
- MCC Interim Linux, which was made available to the public for download on the ftp server of University of Manchesterin February, 1992;
- TAMU, created by individuals at Texas A&M University about the same time, and
- SLS (Softlanding Linux System).
SLS was not well-maintained, so Patrick Volkerding released a distribution based on SLS, which he called Slackware; released July 16, 1993.[4] This is the oldest distribution still in active development.
Users were attracted to Linux distributions as alternatives to the
The distributions were originally simply a convenience, but today they have become the usual choice even for Unix or Linux experts. To date, Linux has proven more popular in the server market, primarily for Web and database servers (see also LAMP), than in the desktop market.
Linux and the GNU Project
The name "Linux distribution" derives from the use of the
Pronunciation
In 1992, Torvalds explained how he pronounces the word Linux:
“ | 'li' is pronounced with a short [ee] sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphtong, like in pUt. It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux. | ” |
— Linus Torvalds, comp.os.linux newsgroup[7] |
Torvalds has made available an audio sample which indicates his own pronunciation, in English and Swedish.[8][9] Nevertheless, English speakers tend to pronounce the name as [ˈlɪnʊks] or [ˈlɪnəks].
Development
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Unix.svg/220px-Unix.svg.png)
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code. Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.[10]
The majority of the code (71%) was written in the
In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 2.2.[11] This distribution contained over fifty-five million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop by conventional means.
Programming on Linux distributions
Most Linux distributions support a wide array of programming languages. Core system software such as libraries and basic utilities are usually written in C. Enterprise software is often written in C++, Java, Perl, or Python. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC). Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for C, C++, Java, and Fortran. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC.
Most distributions also include support for
As well as these free and open source options, there are proprietary compilers and tools available from a range of companies such as the
Components
A typical desktop Linux distribution comprises a
Many provide an installation system akin to that provided with other modern operating systems.
Package management
Distributions are normally segmented into packages. Each package contains a specific application or service. Examples of packages include a library for handling the PNG image format, a collection of fonts, or a web browser.
The package is typically provided as compiled code, with installation and removal of packages handled by a
Although Linux distributions typically contain much more software than proprietary operating systems, it is normal for local administrators to install software not included in the distribution. An example would be a newer version of a software application than that supplied with a distribution, or an alternative to that chosen by the distribution (e.g., KDE rather than GNOME or vice versa). If the additional software is distributed in source-only form, this approach requires local compilation. However, if additional software is locally added, the 'state' of the local system may fall out of synchronization with the state of the package manager's database. If so, the local administrator will be required to take additional measures to ensure the entire system is kept up to date. The package manager may no longer be able to do so automatically.
Most distributions install packages, including the kernel and other core operating system components, in a predetermined configuration. Few now require or even permit configuration adjustments at first install time. This makes installation less daunting, particularly for new users, but is not always acceptable. For specific requirements, much software must be carefully configured to be useful, to work correctly with other software, or to be secure, and local administrators are often obliged to spend time reviewing and reconfiguring assorted software.
By replacing everything provided in a distribution, an administrator may reach a 'distribution-less' state: everything was retrieved, compiled, configured, and installed locally. It is possible to build such a system from scratch, avoiding a distribution altogether. One needs a way to generate the first binaries until the system is self-hosting. This can be done via compilation on another system capable of building binaries for the intended target (possibly by
Desktop
Desktop Linux distributions typically feature a user interface comparable with that of Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X, though migrating users usually have to switch to alternative application software, and there may be a lack of commercial quality software in certain application domains, such as
The high level of access granted to the internals of Linux distributions has led to Linux distribution users traditionally tending to be more technically-inclined than users of
Linux distributions are also used in some corporate environments as desktop platforms for its employees, with commercially available solutions including
In technical disciplines at universities and research centres worldwide, a Linux distribution is often the platform of choice. To some extent, technical competence of computer science and software engineering academics is a contributor, as is stability, maintainability, and upgradability. IBM ran an advertising campaign entitled "Linux is Education" featuring a young boy who was supposed to be "Linux". The
Comparison of Windows and Linux distributions
Due to the prevalence of Windows from the mid-1990s onwards, a comparison between Windows and Linux distributions became a common topic of conversation in the computer industry. Linux distributions and other free software projects have been frequently criticized for not going far enough to ensure ease of use.[18] However, the Berlin-based user experience organization Relevantive concluded in 2003 that the usability of Linux distributions for a set of desktop-related tasks was "nearly equal to Windows XP."[19] Since then, there have been numerous independent studies and articles which indicate that a modern Linux desktop using either GNOME or KDE is on par with Microsoft Windows, even in a business setting.[20]
Some specific proprietary software products are not available in any form for Linux. Compatibility layers such as
Gaming
Although gaming under Linux distributions is traditionally considered inferior to gaming under
Library support for Linux gaming is provided by
Servers, supercomputers and embedded devices
Historically, Linux distributions have mainly been used as server operating systems, and has risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run Linux on their web servers.[21] This is due to its relative stability and long uptimes, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux is the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.
Linux is commonly used on supercomputers. As of January 5 2007, out of the top 500 systems, 376 (75.2%) run Linux.[22]
Due to its low cost and its high configurability, an
Many quantitative studies of open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with many studies specifically examining Linux distributions.[24] The Linux distribution market is rapidly growing and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux distributions is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[25] The actual installed user base may be higher than indicated by this figure, as most Linux distributions and applications are freely available and redistributable. According to the market research company
Support
Technical support is provided by commercial suppliers and by other Linux distribution users, usually in
Choosing a Linux distribution
The diversity of Linux distributions is due to technical, organizational, and philosophical variation amongst users. The permissive licensing of most GNU/Linux software means that any user with sufficient knowledge and interest can customize an existing distribution or design her or his own. Technical variations include support for different hardware devices and systems or software package configurations. Other differences are motivated either by technical decisions, philosophical or even historical reasons. Some distributions specialise in use on desktops, servers or routers. Other criteria include security (and how often security updates are available), ease of package management and the number of binary packages available.
There are tools available to help making the decision, such as several different versions of the Linux Distribution Chooser In qemu, the functionality is already included.
Popularity
Each distro has its own merits and demerits, making selection of a distro a matter of matching needs and attitudes, with distro philosophy and software contents. Nonetheless, DistroWatch provides a summary of the top ten distros by popularity, and another list of 351 distros ranked by page hits over four time periods.
Major Distros | Last 12 Months (Jan-Dec 2006) |
Last 6 Months (Jun-Dec 2006) |
Last 3 Months (Oct-Dec 2006) |
Last 1 Month (Dec 06-Jan 07) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. Ubuntu |
Ubuntu | Ubuntu | Ubuntu | Ubuntu |
2. Mandriva Linux | OpenSUSE | OpenSUSE | OpenSUSE | OpenSUSE |
3. OpenSUSE | Fedora Core |
Fedora Core | Fedora Core | Fedora Core |
4. Fedora Core | MEPIS | MEPIS | MEPIS | MEPIS |
5. Debian | Mandriva Linux | Mandriva Linux | Debian | PCLinuxOS |
6. Gentoo Linux | Debian | PCLinuxOS | PCLinuxOS | Mandriva Linux |
7. Slackware | Damn Small Linux | Debian | Mandriva Linux | SabayonLinux
|
8. Knoppix | PCLinuxOS | Damn Small Linux | Damn Small Linux | Knoppix |
9. MEPIS | Slackware | Slackware | SabayonLinux | Debian |
10. Xandros | Knoppix | Gentoo Linux | Knoppix | Damn Small Linux |
Interdistribution issues
The Free Standards Group is an organization formed by major software and hardware vendors that aims to improve interoperability between different distributions. Among their proposed standards are the Linux Standard Base, which defines a common ABI and packaging system for Linux, and the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard which recommends a standard filenaming chart, notably the basic directory names found on the root of the tree of any Linux filesystem. Those standards, however, see limited use, even among the distributions developed by members of the organization.
Installation
The most common method of installing a Linux distribution on a personal computer is by booting from a
New users tend to begin by partitioning a hard-drive in order to keep an existing operating system. The Linux distribution can then be installed on the new partition without affecting previously saved data.
Early Linux distributions were installed using sets of floppies but this has been abandoned by all major distributions. Nowadays most distributions offer CD and DVD sets with the vital packages on the first disc and less important packages on later ones. They usually also allow installation over a network after booting from either a set of floppies or a CD with only a small amount of data on it.
Some distributions let the user install Linux on top of their current system, such as
See also
- List of Linux distributions
- Comparison of Linux distributions
- GNU/Linux naming controversy
- Cygwin
- LiveDistro
- MiniLinux
- The Cathedral and the Bazaar
- Total cost of ownership
- DistroWatch
- Linux software
- List of Linux games
- List of commercial Linux games
- List of professionally-developed Linux games
References
- Torvalds, Linus, and David Diamond. Just for Fun: The Story of an Accidental Revolutionary. Harper-Collins Business.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Moody, Glyn. Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution. Perseus Publishing. ISBN 0-7139-9520-3.
- Gedda, R (2004). "Linux breaks desktop barrier in 2004: Torvalds". Retrieved 2004-01-16.
- Mackenzie, K (2004). "Linux Torvalds Q&A". Retrieved 2004-01-19.
- Greene, Thomas C. "Mandrake 8.1 easier than Win-XP". The Register. Retrieved 2005-12-22.
- ^ Weeks, Alex (2004). "1.1". Linux System Administrator's Guide (version 0.9 ed.). Retrieved 2007-01-18.
- ^ http://www.gnu.org/gnu/gnu-history.html
- ^ Torvalds, Linus. "What would you like to see most in minix?". Newsgroup: comp.os.minix. [email protected]. Retrieved 2006-09-09.
- ^ http://www.slackware.com/announce/1.0.php
- ^ http://www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html
- ^ Moore, J.T.S. (Produced, Written, and Directed) (2001). Revolution OS (DVD).
- 23 April 1992. [email protected].)
{{cite newsgroup}}
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ignored (help - ^ "Howto pronouce Linux?". Retrieved 2006-12-17.
- ^ "Linus pronouncing Linux in English and Swedish". Retrieved 2007-01-20.
- ^ a b Wheeler, David A (2002-07-29). "More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size". Retrieved 2006-05-11.
- 3 January 2002). "Counting potatoes: The size of Debian 2.2". Retrieved 2006-05-11.)
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suggested) (help - ^ Brockmeier, Joe. "A survey of Linux Web development tools". Retrieved 2006-12-16.
- ^ http://www.pathscale.com/ekopath.html
- ^ http://www.microfocus.com
- ^ http://www.franz.com/
- ^ http://www.pgroup.com/
- ^ "The Global Desktop Project, Building Technology and Communities". Retrieved 2006-05-07.
- ^ Blau, John (2003-08-04). "PC World - Linux Earns User-Friendly Rating". PC World. Retrieved 2005-12-17].
{{cite news}}
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and|date=
(help) - ^ "Relevantive Linux usability study". Retrieved 2006-04-03.
- ^ Dulaney, Emmett (June 2005). "Desktop Linux: Ready for Prime Time?". Retrieved 2006-06-19.
- ^ "Rackspace Most Reliable Hoster in September". Netcraft. October 7 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-01.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ http://www.top500.org/stats/28/osfam/
- ^ "TiVo - GNU/Linux Source Code". Retrieved 2006-12-12.
- ^ Wheeler, David A. "Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers!". Retrieved 2006-04-01.
- ^ "Linux To Ring Up $35 Billion By 2008". Retrieved 2006-04-01.
- ^ White, Dominic (2004-04-02). "Microsoft eyes up a new kid on the block". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2006-09-09.
- ^ "Why customers are flocking to Linux".
- ^ "The rise and rise of Linux".
- ^ http://www.zegeniestudios.net/ldc/
- ^ http://www.tuxs.org/chooser/
- ^ http://desktoplinuxathome.com/distro.html
- ^ http://www.philippwesche.org/2004/programs/whohas/intro.html
- ^ http://www.linux.com/article.pl?sid=06/05/22/1353239
- ^ http://applications.linux.com/article.pl?sid=06/03/16/1724219&tid=47
- ^ http://www.vmwarez.com/2006/02/livecd-player-virtual-machine.html
- ^ Emulating Ubuntu in Windows XP using the free VMware Player
External links
- "What Linux is for you" Quiz
- Latest Linux Distributions
- DistroWatch
- Linux DistroMania
- Linux Screenshots from TCS
- Linux Screenshots from osdir.com
- Linux Screencasts from linclips.com
- Linux Mobile System
- LINUXISO.ORG Linux ISO: CD images and LiveCDs
- Distribution Reviews
- LinuxLinks.com - The Linux Portal site
- Mini-Distributions
- Live CDs - A comprehensive list of 100+ live Linux distros.
- The Linux Mirror Project Download Linux Distributions over BitTorrent
- Grid with links to active Linux distributions
- Linux.org — contains comprehensive information and resources about Linux.
- The Linux Documentation Project — HOWTOs, FAQs and other guides.
- GNU.org — The GNU Project web site
- FSF.org — The Free Software Foundation web site
- Two major Linux groups to merge Jan, 2007