User:Jczhu/arapaho merged

The Arapaho (Arapahoe) language (Hinónoʼeitíít)^[2] is one of the Plains Algonquian languages, closely related to Gros Ventre and other Arapahoan languages. It is spoken by the Arapaho of Wyoming and Oklahoma. Speakers of Arapaho primarily live on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming, though some have affiliation with the Cheyenne living in western Oklahoma.^{[citation needed]} (infobox to the right also from original page)

Classification

Arapaho is an Algonquian language of the Algic family.^[3]

History

By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes: the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878 the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are federally recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Together their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.^{[citation needed]}

After World War 2, the Northern Arapaho tribe tended to use English, not Arapaho, when raising their children. However, Arapaho speakers within the tribe still primarily speak Arapaho amongst each other. The Northern Arapaho additionally have had relatively less intermingling with other tribes and non-Native Americans compared to the Southern Arapaho who live amongst a predominantly non-Native American population.^[4]: 2

Current status

The exact number of Arapaho speakers is not precisely known; however it has been estimated that the language currently retains between 250 ^[5] and 1,000 ^[6] active users. Arapaho has limited development outside of the home; however, it is used in some films^[7] and the Bible was translated into the language in 1903.^[8] According to one source, under 300 people over the age of 50 speak the language in Wyoming, and in Oklahoma the language is used by "only a handful of people . . . all near eighty or older".^[5] As of 1996, there were approximately 1,000 speakers among the Northern Arapaho.^[9] As of 2008, the authors of a newly published grammar estimated that there were slightly over 250 fluent speakers, plus "quite a few near-fluent passive understanders".^[5] In 2008, it was reported that a school had been opened to teach the language to children.^[10] Arapaho language camps were held in Summer 2015 at Wind River Tribal College and in St. Stephens, Wyoming.^[11] Currently, the language may be acquired by children, for a population estimate as recent as 2007 lists an increase to 1,000 speakers and notes that the language is in use in schools, bilingual education efforts begun on Wind River Reservation in the 1980s and the Arapaho Language Lodge, a successful immersion program, was established in 1993.^[12] "The Arapaho Project" is an effort made by the Arapaho people to promote and restore their traditional language and culture.^[13] Despite hope for the language, its relatively few active users and the fact that it has seen recent population decreases render Arapaho an endangered language. Ethnologue deems it "threatened," meaning that some children are learning it but it is threatened by other languages and it may be losing speakers.

Dialects

Besawunena, only attested from a wordlist collected by Kroeber, differs only slightly from Arapaho, though a few of its sound changes resemble those seen in Gros Ventre. It had speakers among the Northern Arapaho as recently as the late 1920s.^{[citation needed]}

Phonology

Among the sound changes in the evolution from Proto-Algonquian to Arapaho are the loss of Proto-Algonquian *k, followed by *p becoming either /k/ or /tʃ/; the two Proto-Algonquian semivowels merging to either /n/ or /j/; the change from *s to /n/ in word-initial position, and *m becoming /b/ or /w/ depending on the following vowel. Arapaho is unusual among Algonquian languages in retaining the contrast between the reconstructed phonemes *r and *θ (generally as /n/ and /θ/, respectively).^[14][15][16] These and other changes serve to give Arapaho a phonological system very divergent from that of Proto-Algonquian and other Algonquian languages, and even from languages spoken in the adjacent Great Basin. Some examples comparing Arapaho words with their cognates in Proto-Algonquian can illustrate this:^[17][18][16]

(table below from the original page)

Vowels

At the level of pronunciation, Arapaho words cannot begin with a vowel, so where the underlying form of a word begins with a vowel, a prothetic /h/ is added.^[19]

Arapaho has a series of four short vowels /i e o u/ (pronounced [ɪ ɛ ɔ ʊ]) and four long vowels /iː eː oː uː/ (customarily written ⟨ii ee oo uu⟩ and pronounced [iː ɛː ɔː uː]). The difference in length is phonemically distinctive: compare hísiʼ, "tick" with híísiʼ, "day", and hócoo, "steak" with hóócoo, "devil".^[19] /i/ and /u/ are mostly in complementary distribution, as, with very few exceptions, the former does not occur after velar consonants, and the latter only occurs after them. /u/ does have some exceptions as in the free variants kokíy ~ kokúy, "gun"; kookiyón ~ kookuyón, "for no reason"; and bííʼoxíyoo ~ bííʼoxúyoo, "Found in the Grass" (a mythological character). There is only one minimal pair to illustrate the contrast in distribution: núhuʼ, "this" versus níhiʼ-, "X was done with Y", in which níhiʼ- only occurs in bound form.^[20]

Remarkably, unlike more than 98% of the world's languages, Arapaho has no low vowels, such as /a/.^[21]

In addition, there are four diphthongs, /ei ou oe ie/, and several triphthongs, /eii oee ouu/ as well as extended sequences of vowels such as /eee/ with stress on either the first or the last vowel in the combination.^[22] Each diphthong also has a lengthened, contrastive counterpart that lengthens the second vowel. For example, hou "blanket" versus houu "crow".^[4]: 15

(the table below also from the original page)

Consonants

<deleted their consonant section and table due to disagreement with the table found in my grammar and lack of citation>

The consonants in Arapaho are given in the table below in their orthographical form along with their IPA equivalent if it differs.^[4]: 14

The glottal consonants appear less pervasively word-initially. The glottal stop /'/ only occurs at the start of a subset of particles and the glottal fricative /h/ is only pronounced initially before an underlying vowel-initial word as vowel-initial words do not occur in Arapaho.^[4]: 14

Allophony

The phoneme /b/ (the

Syllables tend to have the structure CV(C), where the final consonant, if it is present, is either a single consonant, or /hC/.[24]^: 45 In general, [c]onsonant clusters in Arapaho can only be two consonants long. Consonant clusters do not occur word initially, and /hC/ is the only that occurs word finally. The only consonant cluster that is "base generated" (exists in the most underlying representation of words) is /hC/. At the "surface" (at the level of actual pronunciation), other clusters arise by phonological processes including vowel syncope, or by juxtaposition of morphemes.^{[citation needed]}

Vowel-initial, onset-less syllables, however, can occur due to partitioning of vowel clusters. An example of partitioning a cluster of 3 identical vowels into syllables is ní.ii.non ('tepee'). The vowel cluster is not always split into short vowel followed by long vowel; the location of the partition depends on Arapaho's complex pitch accent system. For example, another word with a sequence of 3 vowels, but with a different partitioning of vowels into syllables is hóo.ó ('bed').^[4]: 45

However, sometimes the vowel cluster does not divide and the whole cluster becomes the nucleus of the syllable. One example is hi.héio ('his/her aunt (obviative)').^[4]: 46

Morphology

Arapaho is polysynthetic; verbs in particular take multiple morphemes.^[4]: 7

Inflectional

Nouns

Animacy

Nouns in Arapaho come in two classes: animate and inanimate. Which category a noun belongs to is part of the lexicon. Being animate does not necessitate “aliveness” (but aliveness does mean animate): doors, planets, ghosts, etc. are considered animate. Some nouns can also be both animate and inanimate, but in these situations, the animate version is more “active” (e.g. a log is inanimate, but a rolling log is animate).^{[4]: 51–53}

Obviation

Animate nouns can be made obviative or proximate.^[4]

When the underlying noun is consonant final, two general patterns can occur. One pattern occurs for the class of nouns that have /ii/ or /uu/ (depending on vowel harmony) as their plural marker. These nouns reuse the plural marker to mark obviative singular and both obviative and proximate plural. For example, /iwoxuuh/, a stem meaning 'elk,' is hiwóxuu in the proximate singular, but becomes hiwóxuuh-uu in obviative singular, proximate plural, and obviative plural.^[4]: 58

The other pattern occurs for most other consonant final noun stems and is summarized in the table below. C denotes the final consonant and the bracketed [C] denotes either consonant mutation of C or deletion of some number of stem-final phonemes. /siisiik/ is 'duck'.^[4]: 57

For vowel-final stems, the general pattern is a variation of the first consonant final pattern. Namely, a single marker is used to mark all plural forms and the obviative singular form. For example, /ote/, a stem meaning 'sheep, bighorn sheep,' becomes hóte-’ in proximate singular but hóte-ii in both plural forms and the obviative singular.^[4]: 59

Verbs

Verb categorization

Verbs are divided into classes depending on the transitivity and animacy of their argument(s). Transitivity of a verb affects how many arguments are affixed to the verb. Notice in the examples below the usage of the transitive form requires the addition of INAN, the inanimate marker for the object (the shoes). Verbal inflection also depends on "orders" like imperative.^{[4]: 74–75}

Intransitive, Animate Subject (AI)^[4]: 354

Transitive, Inanimate Object (TI)^[4]: 355