Apollo 7
C) | |
Operator | NASA[1] |
---|---|
COSPAR ID | 1968-089A (craft), 1968-089B (S-IVB)[2] |
SATCAT no. | 3486[3] |
Mission duration | 10 days, 20 hours, 9 minutes, 3 seconds |
Orbits completed | 163[4] |
Spacecraft properties | |
Spacecraft | North American Rockwell |
Launch mass | 36,419 pounds (16,519 kg)[5] |
Landing mass | 11,409 pounds (5,175 kg)[6] |
Crew | |
Crew size | 3 |
Members | |
Callsign | Apollo 7 |
Start of mission | |
Launch date | October 11, 1968, 15:02:45 UTC |
Rocket | LC-34 |
End of mission | |
Recovered by | USS Essex |
Landing date | October 22, 1968, 11:11:48 UTC |
Landing site | North Atlantic Ocean 27°32′N 64°04′W / 27.533°N 64.067°W[7] |
Orbital parameters | |
Reference system | Geocentric |
Regime | Low Earth orbit |
Perigee altitude | 227 kilometers (123 nmi)[2] |
Apogee altitude | 301 kilometers (163 nmi)[2] |
Inclination | 31.6 degrees[2] |
Period | 89.55 minutes[2] |
Epoch | October 13, 1968[8] |
Left to right: Eisele, Schirra, Cunningham |
Apollo 7 (October 11–22, 1968) was the first crewed flight in
The three astronauts were originally designated for the second crewed Apollo flight, and then as backups for Apollo 1. After the Apollo 1 fire, crewed flights were suspended while the cause of the accident was investigated and improvements made to the spacecraft and safety procedures, and uncrewed test flights made. Determined to prevent a repetition of the fire, the crew spent long periods monitoring the construction of their Apollo command and service modules (CSM). Training continued over much of the 21-month pause that followed the Apollo 1 disaster.
Apollo 7 was launched on October 11, 1968, from
Background and personnel
Position | Astronaut[9] | |
---|---|---|
Commander | Walter M. Schirra Third and last spaceflight | |
Command Module Pilot | Donn F. Eisele Only spaceflight | |
Lunar Module Pilot[a] | R. Walter Cunningham Only spaceflight |
Schirra, one of the original "
Eisele was originally slotted for a position on
Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were first named as an Apollo crew on September 29, 1966. They were to fly a second Earth orbital test of the
On January 27, 1967, Grissom's crew was conducting a launch-pad test for their planned February 21 mission, when a fire broke out in the cabin, killing all three men.[16] A complete safety review of the Apollo program followed.[17] Soon after the fire, Slayton asked Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham to fly the first mission after the pause.[18] Apollo 7 would use the Block II spacecraft designed for the lunar missions, as opposed to the Block I CSM used for Apollo 1, which was intended only to be used for the early Earth-orbit missions, as it lacked the capability of docking with a lunar module. The CM and astronauts' spacesuits had been extensively redesigned, to reduce any chance of a repeat of the accident which killed the first crew.[19] Schirra's crew would test the life support, propulsion, guidance and control systems during this "open-ended" mission (meaning it would be extended as it passed each test). The duration was limited to 11 days, reduced from the original 14-day limit for Apollo 1.[20]
The backup crew consisted of Stafford as commander,
CAPCOMs, the person in Mission Control responsible for communicating with the spacecraft (then always an astronaut) were Evans, Pogue, Stafford, Swigert, Young and Cernan. Flight directors were
Preparation
According to Cunningham, Schirra originally had limited interest in making a third spaceflight, beginning to focus on his post-NASA career. Flying the first mission after the fire changed things: "Wally Schirra was being pictured as the man chosen to rescue the manned space program. And that was a task worthy of Wally's interest."[25] Eisele noted, "coming on the heels of the fire, we knew the fate and future of the entire manned space program—not to mention our own skins—was riding on the success or failure of Apollo 7."[26]
Given the circumstances of the fire, the crew initially had little confidence in the staff at
The Apollo 7 crew spent five hours in training for every hour they could expect to remain aboard if the mission went its full eleven days. In addition, they attended technical briefings and pilots' meetings, and studied on their own. They undertook launch pad evacuation training, water egress training to exit the vehicle after splashdown, and learned to use firefighting equipment. They trained on the
Command modules similar to that used on Apollo 7 were subjected to tests in the run-up to the mission. A three-astronaut crew (
During the run-up to the mission, the Soviets sent uncrewed probes Zond 4 and Zond 5 (Zond 5 carried two tortoises[33]) around the Moon, seeming to foreshadow a circumlunar crewed mission. NASA's Lunar Module (LM) was suffering delays, and Apollo Program Spacecraft Manager George Low proposed that if Apollo 7 was a success, that Apollo 8 go to lunar orbit without a LM. The acceptance of Low's proposal raised the stakes for Apollo 7.[28][34] According to Stafford, Schirra "clearly felt the full weight of the program riding on a successful mission and as a result became more openly critical and more sarcastic."[35]
Throughout the Mercury and Gemini programs,
Hardware
Spacecraft
The Apollo 7 spacecraft included Command and Service Module 101 (CSM-101) the first Block II CSM to be flown. The Block II craft had the capability of docking with a LM,[42] though none was flown on Apollo 7. The spacecraft also included the launch escape system and a spacecraft-lunar module adapter (SLA, numbered as SLA-5), though the latter included no LM and instead provided a mating structure between the SM and the S-IVB's Instrument Unit,[43][44] with a structural stiffener substituted for the LM.[45] The launch escape system was jettisoned after S-IVB ignition,[46] while the SLA was left behind on the spent S-IVB when the CSM separated from it in orbit.[45]
Following the Apollo 1 fire, the Block II CSM was extensively redesigned—more than 1,800 changes were recommended, of which 1,300 were implemented for Apollo 7.[38] Prominent among these was the new aluminum and fiberglass outward-opening hatch, which the crew could open in seven seconds from within, and the pad crew in ten seconds from outside. Other changes included replacement of aluminum tubing in the high-pressure oxygen system with stainless steel, replacement of flammable materials with non-flammable (including changing plastic switches for metal ones) and, for crew protection in the event of a fire, an emergency oxygen system to shield them from toxic fumes, as well as firefighting equipment.[47]
After the
Launch vehicle
Since it flew in low Earth orbit and did not include a LM, Apollo 7 was launched with the Saturn IB booster rather than the much larger and more powerful Saturn V.[50] That Saturn IB was designated SA-205,[42] and was the fifth Saturn IB to be flown—the earlier ones did not carry crews into space. It differed from its predecessors in that stronger propellant lines to the augmented spark igniter in the J-2 engines had been installed, so as to prevent a repetition of the early shutdown that had occurred on the uncrewed Apollo 6 flight; postflight analysis had shown that the propellant lines to the J-2 engines, also used in the Saturn V tested on Apollo 6, had leaked.[51]
The Saturn IB was a two-stage rocket, with the second stage an
Apollo 7 was the only crewed Apollo mission to launch from
Mission highlights
The main purposes of the Apollo 7 flight were to show that the Block II CM would be habitable and reliable over the length of time required for a lunar mission, to show that the
Launch and testing
Apollo 7, the first crewed American space flight in 22 months, launched from Launch Complex 34 at 11:02:45 am
During the countdown, the wind was blowing in from the east. Launching under these weather conditions was in violation of safety rules, since in the event of a launch vehicle malfunction and abort, the CM might be blown back over land instead of making the usual water landing. Apollo 7 was equipped with the old Apollo 1-style crew couches, which provided less protection than later ones. Schirra later related that he felt the launch should have been scrubbed, but managers waived the rule and he yielded under pressure.[28]
Liftoff proceeded flawlessly; the Saturn IB performed well on its first crewed launch and there were no significant anomalies during the boost phase. The astronauts described it as very smooth.[38][56] The ascent made the 45-year-old Schirra the oldest person to that point to enter space,[57] and, as it proved, the only astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions.[19]
Within the first three hours of flight, the astronauts performed two actions which simulated what would be required on a lunar mission. First, they maneuvered the craft with the S-IVB still attached, as would be required for the burn that would take lunar missions to the Moon. Then, after separation from the S-IVB, Schirra turned the CSM around and approached a docking target painted on the S-IVB, simulating the docking maneuver with the lunar module on Moon-bound missions prior to extracting the combined craft.[57] After station keeping with the S-IVB for 20 minutes, Schirra let it drift away, putting 76 miles (122 km) between the CSM and it in preparation for the following day's rendezvous attempt.[28]
The astronauts also enjoyed a hot lunch, the first hot meal prepared on an American spacecraft.[57] Schirra had brought instant coffee along over the opposition of NASA doctors, who argued it added nothing nutritionally.[58] Five hours after launch, he reported having, and enjoying, his first plastic bag full of coffee.[59]
The purpose of the rendezvous was to demonstrate the CSM's ability to match orbits with and rescue a LM after an aborted lunar landing attempt, or following liftoff from the lunar surface.[60] This was to occur on the second day; but by the end of the first, Schirra had reported he had a cold, and, despite Slayton coming on the loop to argue in favor, declined Mission Control's request that the crew power up and test the onboard television camera prior to the rendezvous, citing the cold, that the crew had not eaten, and that there was already a very full schedule.[28]
The rendezvous was complicated by the fact that the Apollo 7 spacecraft lacked a rendezvous radar, something the Moon-bound missions would have. The SPS, the engine that would be needed to send later Apollo CSMs into and out of lunar orbit, had been fired only on a test stand. Although the astronauts were confident it would work, they were concerned it might fire in an unexpected manner, necessitating an early end to the mission. The burns would be computed from the ground but the final work in maneuvering up to the S-IVB would require Eisele to use the telescope and sextant to compute the final burns, with Schirra applying the ship's reaction control system (RCS) thrusters. Eisele was startled by the violent jolt caused by activating the SPS. The thrust caused Schirra to yell, "Yabba dabba doo!" in reference to The Flintstones cartoon. Schirra eased the craft close to the S-IVB, which was tumbling out of control, successfully completing the rendezvous.[28][61]
The first television broadcast took place on October 14. It began with a view of a card reading "From the Lovely Apollo Room high atop everything", recalling tag lines used by band leaders on 1930s radio broadcasts. Cunningham served as camera operator with Eisele as emcee. During the seven-minute broadcast, the crew showed off the spacecraft and gave the audience views of the southern United States. Before the close, Schirra held another sign, "Keep those cards and letters coming in folks", another old-time radio tag line that had been used recently by
Later on October 14, the craft's onboard radar receiver was able to lock onto a ground-based transmitter, again showing a CSM in lunar orbit could keep contact with a LM returning from the Moon's surface.[62] Throughout the remainder of the mission, the crew continued to run tests on the CSM, including of the propulsion, navigation, environmental, electrical and thermal control systems. All checked out well; according to authors Francis French and Colin Burgess, "The redesigned Apollo spacecraft was better than anyone had dared to hope."[65] Eisele found that navigation was not as easy as anticipated; he found it difficult to use Earth's horizon in sighting stars due to the fuzziness of the atmosphere, and water dumps made it difficult to discern which glistening points were stars and which ice particles.[66] By the end of the mission, the SPS engine had been fired eight times without any problems.[28]
One difficulty that was encountered was with the sleep schedule, which called for one crew member to remain awake at all times; Eisele was to remain awake while the others slept, and sleep during part of the time the others were awake. This did not work well, as it was hard for crew members to work without making a disturbance. Cunningham later remembered waking up to find Eisele dozing.[67]
Conflict and splashdown
Schirra was angered by NASA managers allowing the launch to proceed despite the winds, saying "The mission pushed us to the wall in terms of risk."[41] Jones said, "This prelaunch dispute was the prelude to a tug of war over command decisions for the rest of the mission."[28] Lack of sleep and Schirra's cold probably contributed to the conflict between the astronauts and Mission Control that surfaced from time to time during the flight.[68]
The testing of the television resulted in a disagreement between the crew and Houston. Schirra stated at the time, "You've added two burns to this flight schedule, and you've added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I can tell you at this point, TV will be delayed without any further discussion until after the rendezvous."[28] Schirra later wrote, "we'd resist anything that interfered with our main mission objectives. On this particular Saturday morning a TV program clearly interfered."[69] Eisele agreed in his memoirs, "We were preoccupied with preparations for that critical exercise and didn't want to divert our attention with what seemed to be trivialities at the time. ... Evidently the earth people felt differently; there was a real stink about the hotheaded, recalcitrant Apollo 7 crew who wouldn't take orders."[70] French and Burgess wrote, "When this point is considered objectively—that in a front-loaded mission the rendezvous, alignment, and engine tests should be done before television shows—it is hard to argue with him [Schirra]."[71] Although Slayton gave in to Schirra, the commander's attitude surprised flight controllers.[28]
On Day 8, after being asked to follow a new procedure passed up from the ground that caused the computer to freeze, Eisele radioed, "We didn't get the results that you were after. We didn't get a damn thing, in fact ... you bet your ass ... as far as we're concerned, somebody down there screwed up royally when he laid that one on us."[72] Schirra later stated his belief that this was the one main occasion when Eisele upset Mission Control.[72] The next day saw more conflict, with Schirra telling Mission Control after having to make repeated firings of the RCS system to keep the spacecraft stable during a test, "I wish you would find out the idiot's name who thought up this test. I want to find out, and I want to talk to him personally when I get back down."[28] Eisele joined in, "While you are at it, find out who dreamed up 'P22 horizon test'; that is a beauty also."[c][28]
A further source of tension between Mission Control and the crew was that Schirra repeatedly expressed the view that the reentry should be conducted with their helmets off. He perceived a risk that their eardrums might burst due to the sinus pressure from their colds, and they wanted to be able to
Apollo 7 splashed down without incident at 11:11:48 UTC on October 22, 1968, 200 nautical miles (230 mi; 370 km) SSW of Bermuda and 7 nautical miles (8 mi; 13 km) north of the recovery ship USS Essex. The mission's duration was 10 days, 20 hours, 9 minutes and 3 seconds.[6][28]
Assessment and aftermath
After the mission, NASA awarded Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham its
Despite the difficulties between the crew and Mission Control, the mission successfully met its objectives to verify the Apollo command and service module's flightworthiness, allowing Apollo 8's flight to the Moon to proceed just two months later.
General Sam Phillips, the Apollo Program Manager, said at the time, "Apollo 7 goes into my book as a perfect mission. We accomplished 101 percent of our objectives."[28] Kraft wrote, "Schirra and his crew did it all—or at least all of it that counted ... [T]hey proved to everyone's satisfaction that the SPS engine was one of the most reliable we'd ever sent into space. They operated the Command and Service Modules with true professionalism."[28] Eisele wrote, "We were insolent, high-handed, and Machiavellian at times. Call it paranoia, call it smart—it got the job done. We had a great flight."[28] Kranz stated in 1998, "we all look back now with a longer perspective. Schirra really wasn't on us as bad as it seemed at the time. ... Bottom line was, even with a grumpy commander, we got the job done as a team."[77]
None of the Apollo 7 crew members flew in space again.[78] According to Jim Lovell, "Apollo 7 was a very successful flight—they did an excellent job—but it was a very contentious flight. They all teed off the ground people quite considerably, and I think that kind of put a stop on future flights [for them]."[78] Schirra had announced, before the flight, his retirement from NASA and the Navy, effective July 1, 1969.[79] The other two crew members had their spaceflight careers stunted by their involvement in Apollo 7; by some accounts, Kraft told Slayton he was unwilling to work in future with any member of the crew.[80] Cunningham heard the rumors that Kraft had said this and confronted him in early 1969; Kraft denied making the statement "but his reaction wasn't exactly outraged innocence."[81] Eisele's career may also have been affected by becoming the first active astronaut to divorce, followed by a quick remarriage, and an indifferent performance as backup CMP for Apollo 10.[82] He resigned from the Astronaut Office in 1970 though he remained with NASA at the Langley Research Center in Virginia until 1972, when he was eligible for retirement.[83][84] Cunningham was made the leader of the Astronaut Office's Skylab division. He related that he was informally offered command of the first Skylab crew, but when this instead went to Apollo 12 commander Pete Conrad, with Cunningham offered the position of backup commander, he resigned as an astronaut in 1971.[85][86]
Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were the only crew, of all the Apollo, Skylab and Apollo–Soyuz missions, who had not been awarded the Distinguished Service Medal immediately following their missions (though Schirra had received the medal twice before, for his Mercury and Gemini missions). Therefore, NASA administrator
Mission insignia
The insignia for the flight shows a command and service module with its SPS engine firing, the trail from that fire encircling a globe and extending past the edges of the patch symbolizing the Earth-orbital nature of the mission. The Roman numeral VII appears in the South Pacific Ocean and the crew's names appear on a wide black arc at the bottom.[87] The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.[88]
Spacecraft location
In January 1969, the Apollo 7 command module was displayed on a NASA float in the inauguration parade of
Depiction in media
On November 6, 1968, comedian
Schirra parlayed the head cold he contracted during Apollo 7 into a television advertising contract as a spokesman for Actifed, an over-the-counter version of the medicine he took in space.[92]
The Apollo 7 mission is dramatized in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode "We Have Cleared the Tower", with Mark Harmon as Schirra, John Mese as Eisele, Fredric Lehne as Cunningham and Nick Searcy as Slayton.[93]
Gallery
-
Apollo 7 in flight
-
Distant view of the S-IVB stage
-
View of the Sinai Peninsula from Apollo 7
-
The Apollo 7 command module on display
See also
Notes
- ^ "Lunar Module Pilot" was the official title used for the third pilot position in Block II missions, regardless of whether the LM spacecraft was present or not.
- ^ A pun on his last name, Wendt (pronounced "went")
- ^ "P22" refers to Program 22 of the Apollo Guidance Computer, a means of getting a navigational fix on the spacecraft. Earlier in the day Eisele had been asked to perform "P22 horizon sightings," to which he initially replied, "What in the world is a P22 horizon sighting?"[73]
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{{cite web}}
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Bibliography
- Apollo 7 Mission Report (PDF). Houston, Texas: NASA. 1968. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
- Apollo 7 Press Kit (PDF). Washington, D.C.: NASA. 1968. 68-168K. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-8032-6212-6.
- ISBN 978-0-14-024146-4.
- ISBN 978-1-59176-605-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8032-6283-6.
- Farmer, Gene; Hamblin, Dora Jane; OCLC 71625.
- ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5.
- Orloff, Richard W.; ISBN 978-0-387-30043-6.
- ISBN 978-1-55750-792-1.
- Scott, David; ISBN 978-0-312-30866-7.
- Shepard, Alan B.; OCLC 29846731.
- ISBN 978-1-58834-070-2.
- Steven-Boniecki, Dwight (2010). Live TV From the Moon. OCLC 489010199.
Further reading
- Lattimer, Dick (1985). All We Did Was Fly to the Moon. History-alive series. Vol. 1. Foreword by LCCN 85222271.
External links
- Master catalog entry at NASA/NSSDC\
- The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology Archived December 9, 2017, at the Wayback Machine NASA, NASA SP-4009
- "Apollo Program Summary Report" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975
- The short film The Flight of Apollo 7 is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- The Log of Apollo 7, 1968 documentary produced by George Van Valkenburg on YouTube