Breaking wheel
The breaking wheel, also known as the execution wheel, the Wheel of Catherine or the (Saint) Catherine('s) Wheel, was a
Punishment
Those convicted as
In the second act, the body was braided into another wooden spoked wheel, which was possible through the broken limbs, or tied to the wheel. The wheel was then erected on a mast or pole, like a
Since the body remained on the wheel after execution, left to scavenging animals, birds and decay, this form of punishment, like the ancient crucifixion, had a sacral function beyond death: according to the belief at that time, this would hinder transition from death to resurrection.[1]: 180
If the convict fell from the wheel still alive or the execution failed in some other way, such as the wheel itself breaking or falling from its placement, it was interpreted as God's intervention. There exist votive images of saved victims of the wheel, and there is literature on how best to treat such sustained injuries.[2]: 204
The survival time after being "wheeled" or "broken" could be extensive. Accounts exist of a 14th-century murderer who remained conscious for three days after undergoing the punishment.[3] In 1348, during the time of the Black Death, a Jewish man named Bona Dies underwent the punishment. The authorities stated he remained conscious for four days and nights afterwards.[4] In 1581, the German serial killer Christman Genipperteinga remained conscious for nine days on the breaking wheel before expiring, having been deliberately kept alive with "strong drink".[5]
Alternatively, the condemned were spreadeagled and broken on a saltire, a cross consisting of two wooden beams nailed in an "X" shape,[6][7] after which the victim's mangled body might be displayed on the wheel.[8]
History
Possible Frankish origins
Historian Pieter Spierenburg mentions a reference in sixth-century author Gregory of Tours as a possible origin for the punishment of breaking someone on the wheel.[9] In Gregory's time, a criminal could be placed in a deep track, and then a heavily laden wagon was driven over him. Thus, the latter practice could be seen as a symbolic re-enactment of the previous penalty in which people were literally driven over by a wagon.[10]
France
In France, the condemned were placed on a cartwheel with their limbs stretched out along the spokes over two sturdy wooden beams. The wheel was made to revolve slowly, and a large hammer or an iron bar was then applied to the limb over the gap between the beams, breaking the bones. This process was inhumanely repeated several times per limb. Sometimes it was "mercifully" ordered that the executioner should strike the condemned on the chest and abdomen, blows known as coups de grâce (French: "blows of mercy"), which caused fatal injuries. Without those, the broken man could last hours and even days, during which birds could peck at the helpless victim. Eventually, shock and dehydration caused death. In France, a special grace, the retentum, could be granted, by which the condemned was strangled after the second or third blow, or in special cases, even before the breaking began.[citation needed]
Holy Roman Empire
In the Holy Roman Empire, the wheel was punishment reserved primarily for men convicted of aggravated murder (murder committed during another crime, or against a family member). Less severe offenders would be cudgelled "top down", with a lethal first blow to the neck. More heinous criminals were punished "bottom up", starting with the legs, and sometimes being beaten for hours. The number and sequence of blows was specified in the court's sentence (for example, in 1581, the serial killer Peter Niers, found guilty of 544 murders was, after two days of extended torture, given 42 strikes with the wheel, and was, at last, quartered alive[11]). Corpses were left for carrion-eaters, and the criminals' heads often placed on a spike.[12]
The "Zürcher Blutgerichtsordnung" (Procedures for the
Dolle case; unclear case
On 1 October 1786 in the
The Essmeyers were taken to court for severe malpractice. It was established that the string around Dolle's neck had not been drawn tightly enough, and that Essmeyer had, contrary to his duties as an executioner, accepted the use of a wheel that was not heavy enough. The inadequate weight meant that the chest had not been crushed. Furthermore, one of Dolle's arms and one of his legs had not broken according to proper penal procedure. And finally the nail that was customarily hammered through the convict's brain in order to fasten him upon the wheel had been hammered in far too low.[citation needed] Many believed that Essmeyer's act of malpractice had been not so much a display of gross incompetence as a deliberate act of cruelty because just prior to his execution Dolle had converted from Catholicism to the Reformed Church. (Essmeyer was a devout Catholic.) The court did not find sufficient evidence for deliberate malice on Essmeyer's part but sentenced him to two years' hard labour and banned him from ever working again as an executioner. His young son was, on grounds of mercy, acquitted of any culpable wrongdoings.[14]
Indian subcontinent
A long struggle between the
Scotland
In Scotland, a servant named Robert Weir was broken on the wheel at Edinburgh in 1603 or 1604 (sources disagree). This punishment had been used infrequently there. The crime had been the murder of John Kincaid, Lord of Warriston, on behalf of his wife, Jean Kincaid. Weir was secured to a cart wheel and was struck and broken with the coulter of a plough. Lady Warriston was later beheaded.[17][18]
Colonial United States
In
Habsburg Empire
At the end of the Revolt of Horea, Cloșca and Crișan, in 1785 (in the Austrian Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)), two of the revolt leaders, Horea and Cloșca, were sentenced to be executed by the breaking wheel. Crișan hanged himself in prison before that sentence could be carried out. According to a book published the same year by Adam F. Geisler, the two leaders were broken "von unten auf", from bottom up, meaning the lower limbs were broken before the upper limbs, prolonging the torture.[20]
Russia
The breaking wheel was frequently used in the Great Northern War in the early 1700s.[citation needed]
Sweden
Here the executioner gave him the first stroke. His cries were terrible. "O Jesus! Jesus, have mercy upon me!" This cruel scene was much lengthened out, and of the utmost horror; for as the headsman had no skill in his business, the wretch under his hands received upwards of fifteen blows, with each of which were intermixed the most piteous groans, and invocations of the name of God. At length, after two strokes given on the breast, his strength and voice failed him. In a faltering dying tone, he was just heard to say, "Cut off my head!" and the executioner still lingering, he himself placed his head on the scaffold: in a word, after four strokes with a hatchet, the head was separated from the body, and the body quartered. Such was the end of the renowned Patkul: and may God have mercy on his soul!
Later use
The breaking wheel was used as a form of execution in Germany as recently as the early 19th century. Its use as a method of execution was not fully abolished in Bavaria until 1813, and still in use until 1836 in Hesse-Kassel. In Prussia, the punishment of death was inflicted by decapitation with a large sword, by burning, and by breaking on the wheel. At the time, the Prussian penal code required a criminal to be broken upon the wheel when a particularly heinous crime had been committed. The king always issued an order to the executioner to strangle the criminal (which was done by a small cord not easily seen) before his limbs were broken. The last execution by this stronger form of capital punishment, of Rudolf Kühnapfel, was on 13 August 1841.[22]
Archaeology
Since victims' bodies of the breaking wheel were often left exposed to environmental influences over a long period of time, hardly any
Metaphorical uses
The breaking wheel was also known as a great dishonor, and appeared in several expressions as such. In Dutch, there is the expression opgroeien voor galg en rad, "to grow up for the gallows and wheel", meaning to be destined to come to no good. It is also mentioned in the Chilean expression morir en la rueda, "to die on the wheel", meaning to keep silent about something. The Dutch expression ik ben geradbraakt, literally "I have been broken on the wheel", is used to describe physical exhaustion and pain, like the German expression sich gerädert fühlen, "to feel wheeled", and the Danish expression radbrækket refer almost exclusively to physical exhaustion and great discomfort.
In Finnish teilata, "to execute by the wheel", refers to forceful and violent critique or rejection of performance, ideas or innovations. The German verb radebrechen ("to break on the wheel") can refer to speaking incorrectly, for example with a strong foreign accent or with a great deal of foreign vocabulary. Similarly, the Norwegian radbrekke can be applied to art and language, and refers to use which is seen as despoiling tradition and courtesy, with connotations of willful ignorance or malice. In Swedish, rådbråka can be used in the same sense as the English idiom "rack one's brain" or, as in German, to mangle language.[24]
The word roué, meaning a debauched or lecherous person, is French, and its original meaning was "broken on the wheel". As execution by breaking on the wheel in France and some other countries was reserved for crimes of particular atrocity, roué came by a natural process to be understood to mean a man morally worse than a "gallows-bird", a criminal who only deserved hanging for common crimes. He was also a leader in wickedness, since the chief of a gang of brigands (for instance) would be broken on the wheel, while his obscure followers were merely hanged.
Another French expression is rouer de coups, which means giving a severe beating to someone.
In English, the quotation "Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?" from Alexander Pope's "Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot" is occasionally seen, referring to putting great effort into achieving something minor or unimportant.
Execution of St Catherine
Medieval hagiographies, such as the Legenda sanctorum, record that St. Catherine of Alexandria was sentenced to be executed on one of these devices for refusing to renounce her Christian belief, which thereafter became known as the Catherine wheel, also used as her iconographic attribute. It is said the wheel miraculously broke when she touched it; she was then beheaded.[25] As an attribute it is usually shown broken in a small version beside her, or sometimes as a miniature she holds in her hand; the sword then used is also often shown.
Coats of arms with Catherine Wheels
Persons
Organizations
- St Catharine's College, Cambridge
- St Catherine's College, Oxford
- University of Santo Tomas Faculty of Philosophy
- Worshipful Company of Turners
- Federal University of Santa Catarina
- University of Saint Catherine, Saint Paul, Minnesota
Places
- Altena, Germany
- Dzierzgoń, Poland
- Garching bei München, Germany
- Goa, India, during Portuguese possession
- Hjørring, Denmark, where Saint Catherine is the patron-saint of the Town.
- Kaarina, Finland, until 2009 and Piikkiö's union with Kaarina
- Kremnica, Slovakia
- Kuldīga, Latvia
- Molsheim, France
- Niedererbach, Germany
- Prien am Chiemsee, Germany, where Saint Catherine is the patron saint of the town
- Sinaai, Belgium
- Wachtebeke, Belgium
- Catalina Island, United States
Gallery
-
Torture of Saint George on the wheel. A fresco from Nakipari, Georgia, 1130
-
Pieter Brueghel the Elder, ca. 1562–1563
-
Detail from #11, Les Grandes Misères de la guerre, Jacques Callot, 1633
-
The execution of Louis Dominique Cartouche, 1721
-
The death of Jean Calas, Toulouse, 1762
-
The execution of Matthias Klostermayr, 1771
-
St. Catherine breaking wheel symbol
-
Catherine wheel cross
-
Coat of Arms of Kremnica in Slovakia displaying the broken Catherine wheel
-
Coat of Arms of Kuldīga in Latvia
See also
References
- ^ ISBN 9783534142217.
- ^ ISBN 9783930656745.
- ^ Sporschil, Johann (1847). Geschichte des Entstehens: des Wachsthums und der Grösse der österreichischen Monarchie. Vol. 2. Leipzig: Oscar Banckwitz. pp. 162–163.
- ISBN 9780719034985.
- ^ Herber, Caspar (1581). Erschröckliche newe Zeytung Von einem Mörder Christman genant, welcher ist Gericht worden zu Bergkessel den 17. Juny diß 1581 Jars. Mainz.
- ISBN 978-0-312-36656-8.
- ISBN 978-1-59921-127-5.
- ISBN 978-0-312-36656-8.
- ^ "Pieter Spierenburg". Norbert Elias Foundation.
- ISBN 9780521261869.
- ^ Garon, Louis (1669). Exilium melancholiae. Strasbourg: Josias Städel. p. 553.
- ISBN 978-0-19-821968-2.
- ^ Müller, J. (1870). Der Aargau: Seine politische, Rechts-, Kultur- und Sitten-Geschichte. ¬Der alte Aarau, Volume 1. Zürich: Schultheß. pp. 385–386. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
- ^ Klein, Ernst F. (1796). Annalen der Gesetzgebung und Rechtsgelehrsamkeit in den preussischen Staaten, Volume 4. Berlin, Stettin: Friedrich Nicolai. pp. 35–41.
- ^ "Bhai Subeg Singh and Bhai Shahbaz Singh". www.sikh-history.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
- ^ "Bhai Shahbaz Singh - MS-18". Archived from the original on 14 June 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
- ^ Chambers, Robert (1885). Domestic Annals of Scotland. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers.
- ^ Buchan, Peter (1828). Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland. Vol. 1. Edinburgh, Scotland. p. 296. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
- ^ "Executions in the U.S. 1608–2002: The Espy File" (PDF). Death Penalty Information Center. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
- ^ Geisler, Adam F. (1785). Horja und Klotska, Oberhaupt und Rathgeber der Aufrührer in Siebenbürgen. Ein Beitr. zur Menschenkunde etc. Karlsburg and Hammerstadt: Buchhandl. d. Gelehrten. p. 68.
- ^ Hagen, Lorentz (1761). Anecdotes Concerning the Famous John Reinhold Patkul: Or, an Authentic Relation of what Passed Betwixt Him and His Confessor, the Night Before and at His Execution. Translated from the Original Manuscript, Never Yet Printed. London: A. Millar. pp. 45–46.
- strangulationbefore his corpse was broken on the wheel.
- ^ a b "Historischer Fund in Groß Pankow: Sensation! Skelett eines geräderten Mannes gefunden" [Historical find in Groß Pankow: Sensation! Skeleton of a wheeled man found]. FOCUS Online (in German).
- ^ "Svenska Akademiens Ordbok: Rådbråka" (in Swedish). Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Catherine of Alexandria". newadvent.org.
External links
- "Breaking on the Wheel". Probertenencyclopaedia. Archived from the original on 28 October 2007.
- Greenblatt, Miriam (2000). Rulers and their Times: Peter the Great and Tsarist Russia. Benchmark Books. ISBN 0-7614-0914-9.