Great Northern War

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the 18th-century war. For wars with similar names, see Northern Wars.

Great Northern War
Part of the Northern Wars

From left to right:
Date22 February 1700 – 10 September 1721
(21 years, 6 months and 2 weeks and 5 days, N.S.)
Location
Northern, Central and Eastern Europe
Result

Anti-Swedish coalition victory:

Territorial
changes
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
Strength
  • Swedish Empire:
    76,000[1]
  • Holstein-Gottorp:
    5,000[2]
  • Brunswick-Lüneburg:
    10,000
  • Warsaw Confederation:
    24,000[3]
  • Ottoman Empire:
    130,000 (limited campaigns)[4]
  • Cossack Hetmanate:
    4,000[5]
  • Dutch Republic:
    13 ships of the line[6]
  • England:
    12 ships of the line[6]
  • Total:
    249,000
  • Tsardom of Russia:
    110,000[7]
  • Cossack Hetmanate:
    30,000[7]
  • Saxony:
    30,000[8]
  • Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth:
    50,000[9]
  • Denmark–Norway:
    40,000[10]
  • Prussia:
    50,000
  • Hanover:
    20,000[11]
  • Total:
    340,000
Casualties and losses
Total: 200,000 dead
  • 25,000 killed in combat
  • 175,000 killed by famine, disease and exhaustion[12]
(including over 40,000 Finns who died in combat or other ways).[13]		 Total: 295,000 dead
  • 20,000 Russians killed in combat [14]
  • 110,000+ killed by famine, disease and exhaustion. Likely much higher figure based on the circumstances of campaigns and battles.[15]
  • 14,000–20,000 Poles, Saxons and 8,000 Danes (70,000 Danes total) killed in the larger battles between 1709–1719.[16]

The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the

Charles XII, and forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively, but rejoined it in 1709 after the defeat of Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava. George I of Great Britain and the Electorate of Hanover joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia
joined it in 1715.

Charles XII led the Swedish army. Swedish allies included

Stanislaus I Leszczyński (1704–1710) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708–1710). The Ottoman Empire
temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I.

The war began when an alliance of

into Russia to confront Peter, but the campaign ended in 1709 with the destruction of the main Swedish army at the decisive Battle of Poltava (in present-day Ukraine) and Charles' exile in the Ottoman town of Bender. The Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign
, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russia's position.

After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it. The remaining Swedish forces in

occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg. Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front but was killed in the Siege of Fredriksten
in 1718.

The war ended with the defeat of Sweden, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region and as a new major force in European politics. The Western powers,

Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened its position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the absolute monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII, and Sweden's Age of Liberty began.[18]

Background

Further information: Dominium maris baltici

Between 1560 and 1658,

small arms fire due to proficient military drill
.

However, the Swedish state ultimately proved unable to support and maintain its army in a prolonged war. Campaigns on the continent had been proposed on the basis that the army would be financially self-supporting through plunder and taxation of newly gained land, a concept shared by most major powers of the period. The cost of the warfare proved to be much higher than the occupied countries could fund, and Sweden's coffers and resources in manpower were eventually drained in the course of long conflicts.

The foreign interventions in Russia during the Time of Troubles resulted in Swedish gains in the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617). The treaty deprived Russia of direct access to the Baltic Sea. Russian fortunes began to reverse in the final years of the 17th century, notably with the rise to power of Peter the Great, who looked to address the earlier losses and re-establish a Baltic presence. In the late 1690s, the adventurer Johann Patkul managed to ally Russia with Denmark and Saxony by the secret Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye, and in 1700 the three powers attacked.

Opposing parties

Peter I of Russia
(right)

Swedish camp

allotment, which had strengthened the monarch's status and the empire's military abilities. Charles XII refrained from all kinds of luxury and alcohol and usage of the French language, since he considered these things decadent and superfluous. He preferred the life of an ordinary soldier on horseback, not that of contemporary baroque courts. He determinedly pursued his goal of dethroning his adversaries, whom he considered unworthy of their thrones due to broken promises, thereby refusing to take several chances to make peace. During the war, the most important Swedish commanders besides Charles XII were his close friend Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld, also Magnus Stenbock and Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt
.

Anna Petrovna
.

Cossack hetman
who fought for Russia but defected to Charles XII in 1708. Mazepa died in 1709 in Ottoman exile.

Allied camp

Augustus II of Poland (left) and Frederick William I of Prussia
(right)

Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov and Boris Sheremetev
.

Rawa Ruska
in September 1698, where the plans to attack Sweden were made, became legendary for its decadence.

Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway, another cousin of Charles XII,[nb 1] succeeded Christian V in 1699 and continued his anti-Swedish policies. After the setbacks of 1700, he focused on transforming his state, an absolute monarchy, in a manner similar to Charles XI of Sweden. He did not achieve his main goal: to regain the former eastern Danish provinces lost to Sweden in the course of the 17th century. He was not able to keep northern Swedish Pomerania, Danish from 1712 to 1715. He did put an end to the Swedish threat south of Denmark. He ended Sweden's exemption from the Sound Dues (transit taxes/tariffs on cargo moved between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea).

for centuries
.

George I of the House of Hanover, elector of Hanover and, since 1714, king of Great Britain and of Ireland, took the opportunity to connect his landlocked German electorate to the North Sea.

Army size

In 1700,

Charles XII
had a standing army of 77,000 men (based on annual training). By 1707 this number had swollen to at least 120,000 despite casualties.

Russia was able to mobilize a larger army but could not put all of it into action simultaneously. The Russian mobilization system was ineffective and the expanding nation needed to be defended in many locations. A grand mobilization covering Russia's vast territories would have been unrealistic. Peter I tried to raise his army's morale to Swedish levels. Denmark contributed 20,000 men in their invasion of Holstein-Gottorp and more on other fronts. Poland and Saxony together could mobilize at least 100,000 men.

Army sizes by combatant in 1700
Type Sweden[20][21][22] Russia[23][24][25] Denmark-Norway[26] Poland-Lithuania[27] Saxony**[28]
infantry 1,900 life guards

33,456 musketeers 19,584 pikemen 6,528 grenadiers 8,400 militia

49,400 line infantry 27,600 line infantry

1,200 naval infantry 1,540 grenadiers 9,600 militia (768 grenadiers)

2,000 line infantry

150 halberdiers

22,500 line infantry

1,500 grenadiers

heavy/line

cavalry

1,500 mounted lifeguard

100 Horse drabants 15,000 heavy cavalry 1,800 noble cavalry

11,553 noble cavalry 402 life guards

402 horse guards 57 drabant guard 4,556 line cavalry

2,100 winged hussars

2,800 pancerni 2,200 heavy cavalry

900 Garde du Corps

1,800 cuirassiers

other cavalry* 10,000 dragoons

4,000 baltic militia dragoons

1,798 dragoons

20,000 Ukrainian cossacks 15,000 Zaporozhian cossacks 15,000 Don Cossacks

7,504 dragoons

804 militia dragoons

4,000 dragoons

1,710 light cavalry

unspecified amount of dragoons
Total 69,868 infantry

32,400 cavalry

49,400 infantry

63,351 cavalry

39,940 infantry

13,723 cavalry

2,150 infantry

12,810 cavalry

* The difference between heavy and other cavalry is often unclear as Swedish cavalry was used as heavy shock cavalry yet was unarmoured.

** The Saxon army and corresponding militia does not have full details available.

Size of European armies in 1710
Population ~1650 (millions) Size of Army (thousands)
State Size ~1710
Denmark–Norway 1.3 [29] 53 [30]
Swedish Empire 1.1 [29] 100 [31]
Brandenburg-Prussia 0.5 [32] 40 [33]
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 11 [34] 100* [35]
Tsardom of Russia 15 [36] 170 [31]
Kingdom of England 4.7 [37] 87 [31]
Dutch Republic 1.5 [38] 120 [39]
Kingdom of France 18 [40] 340–380 [39]
Habsburg Monarchy
 8 [41] 110–130 [41]
Crown of Castile
Crown of Aragon		 7 [40] 50 [31]
Ottoman Empire 18 [42] 50** [43]
* All Polish forces, on both sides in the Great Northern War. **
Janissaries
only.

1700: Denmark, Riga and Narva

Main articles:
Landing on Humlebæk, Peace of Travendal, Siege of Riga (1700), and Battle of Narva (1700)
The bombardment of Copenhagen, 1700

Dünamünde and laid siege to Riga.[45]

Sound blockade and deploy an army near the Danish capital, Copenhagen. At the same time, a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet had also set course towards Denmark. Together with the Swedish fleet, they carried out a bombardment of Copenhagen from 20 to 26 July. This surprise move and pressure by the Maritime Powers (England and the Dutch Republic) forced Denmark–Norway to withdraw from the war in August 1700 according to the terms of the Peace of Travendal.[46]

Charles XII was now able to speedily deploy his army to the eastern coast of the

Peter I was already on its way to invade Swedish Ingria,[46] where it laid siege to Narva in October. In November, the Russian and Swedish armies met at the First Battle of Narva where the Russians suffered a crushing defeat.[47]

After the dissolution of the first coalition through the

Benedict Oxenstjerna, attempted to use the bidding for the favour of Sweden by France and the Maritime Powers (then on the eve of the War of the Spanish Succession)[48]
to end the war and make Charles an arbiter of Europe.

1701–1706: Poland-Lithuania and Saxony

Main articles: Swedish invasion of Poland (1701–1706), Civil war in Poland (1704–1706), and Swedish invasion of Saxony
Swedish invasion of Poland
, 1701

Charles XII then turned south to meet

breaking on the wheel in 1707, an incident which, given his diplomatic immunity, infuriated opinion against the Swedish king, who was then expected to win the war against the only hostile power remaining, Tsar Peter's Russia.[51]

1702–1710: Russia and the Baltic provinces

Main articles:
Pursuit of Krasnokutsk, Battle of Poltava, and Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia
Peter the Great assaults the island fortress of Nöteborg, which he renamed Shlisselburg, recognising it as the "key" to taking Ingria.
Decisive Russian victory at Poltava 1709

The

River Neva.[52] Thanks to General Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt, whose outnumbered forces fended the Russians off in the battles of Gemäuerthof and Jakobstadt
, Sweden was able to maintain control of most of its Baltic provinces. Before going to war, Peter had made preparations for a navy and a modern-style army, based primarily on infantry drilled in the use of firearms.

The Nyen fortress was soon abandoned and demolished by Peter, who built nearby a superior fortress as a beginning to the city of Saint Petersburg. By 1704, other fortresses were situated on the island of Kotlin and the sand flats to its south. These became known as Kronstadt and Kronslot.[52] The Swedes attempted a raid on the Neva fort on 13 July 1704 with ships and landing armies, but the Russian fortifications held. In 1705, repeated Swedish attacks were made against Russian fortifications in the area, to little effect. A major attack on 15 July 1705 ended in the deaths of more than 500 Swedish men, or a third of its forces.[53]

In view of continued failure to check Russian consolidation, and with declining manpower, Sweden opted to blockade Saint Petersburg in 1705. In the summer of 1706, Swedish General

Peter I led an army of 20,000 men in an attempt to take the Swedish town and fortress of Viborg. However, bad roads proved impassable to his heavy siege guns. The troops, who arrived on 12 October, therefore had to abandon the siege after only a few days. On 12 May 1708, a Russian galley fleet made a lightning raid on Borgå
and managed to return to Kronslot just one day before the Swedish battle fleet returned to the blockade, after being delayed by unfavourable winds.

In August 1708, a Swedish army of 12,000 men under General

Peter I took advantage of this by redeploying a large number of men from Ingria to Ukraine.[54]

Charles spent the years 1702–06 in a prolonged struggle with

Riga in June 1701 and took Warsaw the following year, but trying to force a decisive defeat proved elusive. Russia left Poland in the spring of 1706, abandoning artillery but escaping from the pursuing Swedes, who stopped at Pinsk.[55] Charles wanted not just to defeat the Commonwealth army but to depose Augustus, whom he regarded as especially treasonous, and have him replaced with someone who would be a Swedish ally, though this proved hard to achieve. After years of marches and fighting around Poland he finally had to invade Augustus' hereditary Saxony to take him out of the war.[50] In the treaty of Altranstädt (1706)
, Augustus was finally forced to step down from the Polish throne, but Charles had already lost the valuable advantage of time over his main enemy in the east, Peter I, who then had the time to recover and build up an army that was both new and better.

At this point, in 1707, Peter offered to return everything he had so far occupied (essentially Ingria) except Saint Petersburg and the line of the Neva,

to invade Russia. Though his primary goal was Moscow, the strength of his forces was sapped by the cold weather (the winter of 1708/09 being one of the most severe in modern European history)[57] and Peter's use of scorched earth tactics.[58] When the main army turned south to recover in Ukraine,[59] the second army with supplies and reinforcements was intercepted and routed at Lesnaya—and so were the supplies and reinforcements of Swedish ally Ivan Mazepa in Baturyn. Charles was crushingly defeated by a larger Russian force under Peter in the Battle of Poltava and fled to the Ottoman Empire while the remains of his army surrendered at Perevolochna.[60]

This shattering defeat in 1709 did not end the war, although it decided it. Denmark and Saxony joined the war again and Augustus the Strong, through the politics of Boris Kurakin, regained the Polish throne.[61] Peter continued his campaigns in the Baltics, and eventually he built up a powerful navy. In 1710 the Russian forces captured Riga,[62] at the time the most populated city in the Swedish realm, and Tallinn, evicting the Swedes from the Baltic provinces, now integrated in the Russian Tsardom by the capitulation of Estonia and Livonia.

Formation of a new anti-Swedish alliance

After Poltava, Peter the Great and Augustus the Strong allied again in the Treaty of Thorn (1709); Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway with Augustus the Strong in the Treaty of Dresden (1709); and Russia with Denmark–Norway in the subsequent Treaty of Copenhagen. In the Treaty of Hanover (1710), Hanover, whose elector was to become George I of Great Britain, allied with Russia. In 1713, Brandenburg-Prussia allied with Russia in the Treaty of Schwedt. George I of Great Britain and Hanover concluded three alliances in 1715: the Treaty of Berlin with Denmark–Norway, the Treaty of Stettin with Brandenburg-Prussia, and the Treaty of Greifswald with Russia.

1709–1714: Ottoman Empire

Main articles:
Pruth Campaign and Skirmish at Bender

When his army surrendered, Charles XII of Sweden and a few soldiers escaped to

Pruth river. However, Peter managed to negotiate a retreat, making a few territorial concessions and promising to withdraw his forces from the Holy Roman Empire as well as allowing Charles's return to Sweden. These terms were laid out in the Treaty of Adrianople (1713). Charles showed no interest in returning, established a provisional court in his colony, and sought to persuade the sultan to engage in an Ottoman-Swedish assault on Russia. The sultan put an end to the generous hospitality granted and had the king arrested in what became known as the "kalabalik" in 1713. Charles was then confined at Timurtash and Demotika; later he abandoned his hopes for an Ottoman front and returned to Sweden in a 14-day ride.[63]

1710–1721: Finland

Main articles:
The Great Wrath, and Battle of Grengam
Battle of Gangut (Hanko)[64]

The war between Russia and Sweden continued after the disaster of

Kymijoki river using scorched earth tactics. Apraksin's forces reached the river but chose not to cross it and instead withdrew back to Viborg, likely due to problems in supply.[66] Swedish efforts to maintain their defences were greatly hampered by the drain of manpower by the continental army and various garrisons around the Baltic Sea as well as by the plague outbreak that struck Finland and Sweden between 1710 and 1713, which devastated the land killing, amongst others, over half of the population of Helsingfors (Helsinki).[67]

The final days of the siege of Viborg, by Alexei Rostovtsev

After the failure of 1712, Peter the Great ordered that further campaigns in war-ravaged regions of Finland with poor transportation networks were to be performed along the coastline and the seaways near the coast. Alarmed by the Russian preparations Lybecker requested naval units to be brought in as soon as possible in the spring of 1713. However, like so often, Swedish naval units arrived only after the initial Russian spring campaign had ended.[68] Nominally under the command of Apraksin, but accompanied by Peter the Great, a fleet of coastal ships together with 12,000 men—infantry and artillery—began the campaign by sailing from Kronstadt on 2 May 1713; a further 4,000 cavalry were later sent overland to join with the army. The fleet had already arrived at Helsinki on 8 May and were met by 1,800 Swedish infantry under General Carl Gustaf Armfeldt, which started the Battle of Helsinki.[69] Together with rowers from the ships the Russians had 20,000 men at their disposal even without the cavalry. The defenders, however, managed to fend off landing attempts by the attackers until the Russians landed at their flank at Sandviken, which forced Armfelt to retire towards Porvoo (Borgå) after setting afire both the town and all the supplies stored there as well as bridges leading north from the town. It was only on 12 May that a Swedish squadron under Admiral Erik Johan Lillie made it to Helsinki but there was nothing it could do.[70]

The bulk of the Russian forces moved along the coast towards Borgå and the forces of Lybecker, whom Armfelt had joined. On 21–22 May 1713 a Russian force of 10,000 men landed at Pernå (Pernaja) and constructed fortifications there. Large stores of supplies and munitions were transported from Viborg and Saint Petersburg to the new base of operations. Russian cavalry managed to link up with the rest of the army there as well. Lybecker's army of 7000 infantry and 3000 cavalry avoided contact with the Russians and instead kept withdrawing further inland without even contesting the control of Borgå region or the important coastal road between Helsinki (Helsingfors) and Turku (Åbo). This also severed the contact between Swedish fleet and ground forces and prevented Swedish naval units from supplying it. Soldiers in the Swedish army who were mostly Finnish resented being repeatedly ordered to withdraw without even seeing the enemy. Lybecker was soon recalled to Stockholm for a hearing and Armfelt was ordered to the command of the army. Under his command the Swedish army in Finland stopped to engage the advancing Russians at Pälkäne in October 1713, where a Russian flanking manoeuvre forced him to withdraw to avoid getting encircled. The armies met again later at Napue in February 1714, where the Russians won a decisive victory.[71]

In 1714, far greater Swedish naval assets were diverted towards Finland, which managed to cut the coastal sea route past

Great Wrath.[72]

1710–1716: Sweden and Northern Germany

Main articles:
Landing on Groß Stresow
Danish town of Altona burned down during Magnus Stenbock's campaign (1713). Russian forces retaliated by burning down the Swedish town of Wolgast in the same year.

In 1710, the Swedish army in Poland retreated to Swedish Pomerania, pursued by the coalition. In 1711, siege was laid to Stralsund. Yet the town could not be taken due to the arrival of a Swedish relief army, led by general Magnus Stenbock, which secured the Pomeranian pocket before turning west to defeat an allied army in the Battle of Gadebusch. Pursued by coalition forces, Stenbock and his army was trapped and surrendered during the Siege of Tönning.[73]

In 1714, Charles XII returned from the Ottoman Empire, arriving in

escaping only days before Stralsund fell. When Wismar surrendered in 1716, all of Sweden's Baltic and German possessions were lost.[76]

1716–1718: Norway

Main articles:
Great Northern War and Norway, Siege of Fredriksten, and Carolean Death March
Representation of Charles XII of Sweden, shot dead during the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718

After Charles XII had returned from the Ottoman Empire and resumed personal control of the war effort, he initiated two

Norwegian Campaigns, starting in February 1716, to force Denmark–Norway into a separate peace treaty. Furthermore, he attempted to bar Great Britain access to the Baltic Sea. In search for allies, Charles XII also negotiated with the British Jacobite party. This resulted in Great Britain declaring war on Sweden in 1717. The Norwegian campaigns were halted and the army withdrawn when Charles XII was shot dead while besieging Norwegian Fredriksten on 30 November 1718 (OS). He was succeeded by his sister, Ulrika Eleonora.[77]

1719–1721: Sweden

Main article:
Russian Pillage of 1719–21
The Battle of Grengam. A 1721 etching by Alexey Zubov.

After the death of Charles XII, Sweden still refused to make peace with Russia on Peter's terms. Despite a continued Swedish naval presence and strong patrols to protect the coast, small Russian raids took place in 1716 at Öregrund, while in July 1717 a Russian squadron landed troops at Gotland who raided for supplies. To place pressure on Sweden, Russia sent a large fleet to the Swedish east coast in July 1719. There, under protection of the Russian battlefleet, the Russian galley fleet was split into three groups. One group headed for the coast of Uppland, the second to the vicinity of Stockholm, and the last to coast of Södermanland. Together they carried a landing force of nearly 30,000 men. Raiding continued for a month and devastated amongst others the towns of Norrtälje, Södertälje, Nyköping and Norrköping, and almost all the buildings in the archipelago of Stockholm were burned. A smaller Russian force advanced on the Swedish capital but was stopped at the battle of Stäket on 13 August. Swedish and British fleets, now allied with Sweden, sailed from the west coast of Sweden but failed to catch the raiders.[78]

After the treaty of Frederiksborg in early 1720, Sweden was no longer at war with Denmark, which allowed more forces to be placed against the Russians. This did not prevent Russian galleys from raiding the town of Umeå once again. Later, in July 1720, a squadron from the Swedish battlefleet engaged the Russian galley fleet in the battle of Grengam. While the result of the battle is contested, it ended Russian galley raids in 1720. As negotiations for peace did not progress, the Russian galleys were once again sent to raid the Swedish coast in 1721, targeting primarily the Swedish coast between Gävle and Piteå.[79]

Peace

Main articles: Treaty of Frederiksborg, Treaties of Stockholm (Great Northern War), and Treaty of Nystad
Campaigns and territorial changes 1700–1709 (left) and 1709–1721 (right)

By the time of Charles XII's death, the anti-Swedish allies became increasingly divided on how to fill the power gap left behind by the defeated and retreating Swedish armies. George I and Frederik IV both coveted hegemony in northern Germany, while Augustus the Strong was concerned about the ambitions of Frederick William I on the southeastern Baltic coast. Peter the Great, whose forces were spread all around the Baltic Sea, envisioned hegemony in East Central Europe and sought to establish naval bases as far west as Mecklenburg. In January 1719, George I, Augustus and emperor Charles VI concluded a treaty in Vienna aimed at reducing Russia's frontiers to the pre-war limits.[77]

Hanover-Great Britain and Brandenburg-Prussia thereupon negotiated separate peace treaties with Sweden, the treaties of Stockholm in 1719 and early 1720, which partitioned Sweden's northern German dominions among the parties. The negotiations were mediated by French diplomats, who sought to prevent a complete collapse of Sweden's position on the southern Baltic coast and assured that Sweden was to retain Wismar and northern Swedish Pomerania. Hanover gained Swedish Bremen-Verden, while Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated southern Swedish Pomerania.[80] Britain would briefly switch sides and supported Sweden before leaving the war. In addition to the rivalries in the anti-Swedish coalition, there was an inner-Swedish rivalry between Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and Frederick I of Hesse-Cassel for the Swedish throne. The Gottorp party succumbed and Ulrike Eleonora, wife of Frederick I, transferred power to her husband in May 1720. When peace was concluded with Denmark, the anti-Swedish coalition had already fallen apart, and Denmark was not in a military position to negotiate a return of its former eastern provinces across the sound. Frederick I was, however, willing to cede Swedish support for his rival in Holstein-Gottorp, which came under Danish control with its northern part annexed, and furthermore cede the Swedish privilege of exemption from the Sound Dues. A respective treaty was concluded in Frederiksborg in June 1720.[80]

Timeline of each main participant in the war

When Sweden finally was at peace with Hanover, Great Britain, Brandenburg-Prussia and Denmark–Norway, it hoped that the anti-Russian sentiments of the Vienna parties and France would culminate in an alliance that would restore its Russian-occupied eastern provinces. Yet, primarily due to internal conflicts in Great Britain and France, that did not happen. Therefore, the war was finally concluded by the Treaty of Nystad between Russia and Sweden in Uusikaupunki (Nystad) on 30 August 1721 (OS). Finland was returned to Sweden, while the majority of Russia's conquests (Swedish Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, Kexholm and a portion of Karelia) were ceded to the tsardom.[81] Sweden's dissatisfaction with the result led to fruitless attempts at recovering the lost territories in the course of the following century, such as the Russo-Swedish War of 1741–1743, and the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790.[80]

Saxe-Poland-Lithuania and Sweden did not conclude a formal peace treaty; instead, they renewed the

Peace of Oliva that had ended the Second Northern War in 1660.[82]

Sweden had lost almost all of its "overseas" holdings gained in the 17th century and ceased to be a major power. Russia gained its Baltic territories and became one of the greatest powers in Europe.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^
    Frederik III of Denmark-Norway

Citations

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  39. ^ a b Glete, Jan (2002). War and the State in Early Modern Europe. London : Routledge, p. 156.
  40. ^ a b "Population of Western Europe." Tacitus.nu. Archived 1 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 28 December 2016
  41. ^ a b Hochedlinger, Michael (2003). Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683–1797. London: Routledge, pp. 26, 102.
  42. ^ "Population of Eastern Balkans." Tacitus.nu. Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 28 December 2016
  43. ^ Ágoston, Gabor (2010), "Ottoman-Habsburg rivalry and military transformation." In: Tallet, Frank & Trim, D.B.J. (eds.). European Warfare, 1350–1750. Cambridge University Press, p. 128.
  44. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 227–228
  45. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 228–229
  46. ^ a b Frost 2000, p. 229
  47. ^ Frost 2000, p. 230
  48. ^ Gosse 1911, p. 205.
  49. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 694
  50. ^ a b Tucker 2010, p. 701
  51. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 230, 263ff
  52. ^ a b Tucker 2010, p. 691
  53. ^ Mattila (1983), pp. 10–19.
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  55. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 700
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  59. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 706
  60. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 231, 286ff
  61. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 710
  62. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 711
  63. ^ Petersen (2007), pp. 268–272, 275; Bengtsson (1960), pp. 393ff, 409ff, 420–445
  64. ^ The Russian Victory at Gangut (Hanko), 1714 by Maurice Baquoi, etched 1724
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  69. ISBN 978-952-222-675-4
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  82. ^ Donnert 1997, p. 510

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Bain, R. Nisbet. Charles XII and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire, 1682–1719 (1899) online
  • Englund, Peter. Battle That Shook Europe: Poltava & the Birth of the Russian Empire (2003)
  • Hatton, Ragnhild M. "Charles XII and the Great Northern War." in J.S. Bromley, ed., New Cambridge Modern History VI: The Rise of Great Britain and Russia 1688–1725 (1970) pp 648–80.
  • Lisk, Jill. The struggle for supremacy in the Baltic, 1600–1725 (1968).
  • Lunde, Henrik O. A Warrior Dynasty: The Rise and Decline of Sweden as a Military Superpower (Casemate, 2014).
  • McKay, Derek, and H. M. Scott. The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815 (1983) pp 77–93.
  • Moulton, James R. Peter the Great and the Russian Military Campaigns During the Final Years of the Great Northern War, 1719–1721 (University Press of America, 2005).
  • Oakley, Stewart P. War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790 (Routledge, 2005).
  • Sumner, B. H. (1951). Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia. The English Universities Press Ltd.
  • Stiles, Andrina. Sweden and the Baltic 1523–1721 (Hodder & Stoughton, 1992).
  • Wilson, Derek. "Poltava: The battle that changed the world." History Today 59.3 (2009): 23.

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