Constantine (Briton)
Constantine (/ˈkɒnstəntiːn/, Welsh: Cystennin, fl. 520–523) was a 6th-century king of Dumnonia in sub-Roman Britain, who was remembered in later British tradition as a legendary King of Britain. The only contemporary information about him comes from Gildas, who castigated him for various sins, including the murder of two "royal youths" inside a church. The historical Constantine is also known from the genealogies of the Dumnonian kings, and possibly inspired the tradition of Saint Constantine, a king-turned-monk venerated in Southwest Britain and elsewhere.
In the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth included Constantine in his pseudohistorical chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae, adding details to Gildas' account and making Constantine the successor to King Arthur as King of Britain. Under Geoffrey's influence, Constantine appeared as Arthur's heir in later chronicles. Less commonly, he also appeared in that role in medieval Arthurian romances and prose works, and in some modern versions of the legend.
History
The 6th-century monk
Gildas says that despite swearing an oath against deceit and tyranny, Constantine disguised himself in an abbot's robes and attacked two "royal youths" praying before a church altar, killing them and their companions. Gildas is clear that Constantine's sins were manifold even before this, as he had committed "many adulteries" after casting off his lawfully wedded wife. Gildas encourages Constantine, whom he knows to still be alive at the time, to repent his sins lest he be damned.[1] The murders may relate to a 6th-century cult in Brittany honoring the Saints Dredenau, two young princes killed by an ambitious uncle.[4]
Scholars generally identify Gildas' Constantine with the figure Custennin Gorneu or Custennin Corneu (Constantine of Cornwall) who appears in the genealogies of the kings of Dumnonia.
Saint Constantine
The historical Constantine of Dumnonia may have influenced later traditions, known in South West England as well as in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, about a Saint Constantine who is usually said to have been a king who gave up his crown to become a monk. The Cornish and Welsh traditions especially may have been influenced by Gildas, in particular his adjuration for Constantine to repent; the belief may have been that the reproach eventually worked.[9]
The two major centers for the
The
Other sites in Southwestern Britain associated with figures named Constantine include the church of
Geoffrey of Monmouth and the chronicle tradition
Historia Regum Britanniae
In Geoffrey, Arthur passes his crown to his relative Constantine after being mortally wounded by the traitor Mordred in the Battle of Camlann. Geoffrey identifies Gildas' "royal youths" as Mordred's two sons, who, along with their Saxon allies, continue their father's insurrection after his death. After "many battles" Constantine routs the rebels, and Mordred's sons flee to London and Winchester, where they hide in a church and a friary, respectively. Constantine hunts them down and executes them before the altars of their sanctuaries. Divine retribution for this transgression comes three years later when Constantine is killed by his nephew Aurelius Conanus (Gildas' Aurelius Caninus), precipitating a civil war. He is buried at Stonehenge alongside other kings of Britain.[18]
Latin scholar Neil Wright considers Geoffrey's changes to Gildas to be deliberate reformulations that produce a more sympathetic picture of Constantine and his successors. For Wright, identifying the "royal youths" as traitors justifies the killing, reducing Constantine's offence from murder to sacrilege (for killing the traitors in sanctuary).[13] Overall, scholars regard Geoffrey's depiction of Constantine as pessimistic, highlighting how little of Arthur's legacy survives his death.[19]
Later chronicles
Geoffrey returned to Constantine's struggles and untimely murder in his later work Vita Merlini. The text, set during the reign of Aurelius Conanus, recounts how Constantine gave Mordred's sons a "cruel death" and ended their destructive rebellion, omitting details of the killing. According to the Vita, Constantine ruled only briefly before Conanus rose up, killed him, and seized the kingdom he now governs poorly. Rosemary Morris writes that Vita Merlini reinforces the Historia's message that Constantine was unable to perpetuate the glories of Arthur's reign.[19][20]
Variants of Geoffrey's version of Constantine appeared in the numerous later adaptations of the Historia, which were widely regarded as authentic in the Middle Ages. Such variants include Wace's Anglo-Norman Roman de Brut, the Welsh Brut y Brenhinedd, and Layamon's English Brut.[21] These typically reflect Geoffrey's cynicism about the character. Layamon, however, adds a touch of optimism, writing that Constantine successfully if briefly answered Arthur's charge to rule in his manner.[19] Following Geoffrey, many of these works do not expand upon Constantine's relation to Arthur, though others elaborate that he is Arthur's nephew. Taking hints from Geoffrey's version of Arthur's family tree, these writers make Constantine's father Cador a brother, or half-brother, of Arthur through Arthur's mother Igraine.[22][23]
Later traditions
Medieval romance and prose tradition
Constantine does not figure strongly in the Arthurian romance traditions or prose cycles. He is absent from the French
Constantine does appear in some medieval works. In
Constantine also appears as Arthur's heir in
Modern literature and media
Constantine features in some modern treatments of the legend.
Notes
- ^ a b De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, ch. 28–29.
- ^ Lloyd, pp. 131–132.
- ^ O'Sullivan, p. 92 & note.
- ^ Wasyliw, pp. 80–81.
- ^ O'Sullivan, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Bromwich, pp. 318–319; 356–360.
- ^ Geraint and Enid.
- ^ O'Sullivan, p. 95.
- ^ a b c d Orme, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Jankulak, p. 17.
- Constantine III in the Welsh Triads.
- ^ Clarkson 1999.
- ^ a b Wright, p. 10.
- ^ Bromwich, p. 319.
- ^ Lacy, Ashe, and Mancoff, p. 301.
- ^ Bromwich, p. 319, 358.
- ^ Moll, p. 166.
- ^ Historia Regum Britanniae, Book 11, ch. 2–4.
- ^ a b c Morris, p. 138.
- ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth, Vita Merlini lines 1128–1135. See: Geoffrey of Monmouth (2007). Huber, Emily Rebekah (ed.). "Arthur from the Vita Merlini". The Camelot Project. University of Rochester. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
- ^ a b Bruce, p. 218.
- ^ Molchan, pp. 31, 38, and notes.
- ^ Blaess, pp. 70–71.
- ^ a b Morris, p. 139.
- ^ a b Trachsler, p. 31.
- ^ Spence, p. 55, 83–85.
- ^ Benson & Foster, Alliterative Morte Arthure line 4316.
- ^ Blaess, p. 76 and note.
- ^ Vargas Díaz-Toledo 2006, pp. 233–234.
- ^ Vargas Díaz-Toledo 2013, para. 29–33.
- ^ Finazzi-Agrò, pp. 45–48.
- ^ Blaess, pp. 70–71, 76.
- ^ Dichmann, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Whitaker, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Whitaker, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Simko, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Benson, p. 247.
- ^ Lupack & Lupack, p. 12.
- ^ Fisher, p. 166.
- ^ Taylor & Brewer, p. 303.
- ^ Hoburg, pp. 72–73, 75–78.
- ^ Thompson & Lacy, p. 590.
- ^ Thompson, p. 605.
- ^ Grylls, David (9 October 2011). "The play's the thing – or is it? – A new 'Shakespeare' provokes both scholarly dispute and a teasingly postmodern domestic drama". The Sunday Times.
- ^ Phillips, pp. 254, 257–259, 297.
References
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- Benson, Larry D. (1976). Malory's Morte D'Arthur. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674543939.
- Blaess, Madeleine (1956). "Arthur's Sisters". Bulletin Bibliographique de la Société Internationale Arthurienne. 8: 69–77.
- ISBN 0-7083-1386-8.
- Bruce, Christopher W. (1999). The Arthurian Name Dictionary. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0815328656. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
- Clarkson, Tim (Winter 1999). "Rhydderch Hael". The Heroic Age. 1 (2). Archived from the original on 26 April 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
- Dichmann, Mary E. (1964). "The Tale of King Arthur and the Emperor Lucius". In Lumiansky, R. M. (ed.). Malory's Originality: A Critical Study of Le Morte Darthur. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 67–90. ISBN 0801804035.
- Finazzi-Agrò, Ettore (1978). A novelística portuguesa do século XVI (in Portuguese). Instituto de Cultura e Língua Portuguesa. pp. 45–48. ASIN B000ZQ4P8M. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
- Fisher, IV, Benjamin Franklin (1990). "King Arthur Plays from the 1890s". Victorian Poetry. 28 (3/4): 153–176. JSTOR 40002298.
- Grylls, David (9 October 2011). "The play's the thing - or is it? - A new 'Shakespeare' provokes both scholarly dispute and a teasingly postmodern domestic drama". The Sunday Times.
- Geoffrey of Monmouth (2007). Huber, Emily Rebekah (ed.). "Arthur from the Vita Merlini". d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot-project. The Camelot Project, University of Rochester. Retrieved 8 July 2014.
- Hoburg, Tom (1992). "In Her Own Right: The Guenevere of Parke Godwin". In Slocum, Sally K. (ed.). Popular Arthurian Traditions. Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 68–79. ISBN 0879725621.
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