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Robotics

Robotics is a discipline that carries out processes such as the production, design, control, operation and use of robots and is a common working area of many engineering disciplines such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, aerospace engineering, and computer engineering. Robots are used in almost every sector such as education, medicine, service, transportation, industry, agriculture, entertainment, defense and space.^[1] And robotics aims to develop these sectors and It is a field that has a big share in shaping the future by doing these. Therefore, the use of the field of robotics is quite common.^[2] Robots are programmable devices consisting of electronic and mechanical components that can perform autonomous or preprogrammed tasks. They can perform operations constantly and systemically that people in the industry would have difficulty in doing in large numbers, and they can take part in endangered processes that people cannot foresee.^[3]

The appearance of robots can vary greatly depending on their function and the area in which they will be used. That is, a robot according to its functions; may have features and components such as wheels, motors, batteries, circuits, sensors, computer programs, humanoid or animal-like appearances, and artificial intelligence.^[4]

History

For the first time in history, evidence that fits the definition of a robot is found in the Lie Zi manuscript written in China in the 3rd century BC. In this manuscript, it is written that a craftsman told Wu, the Zhou king, who lived thousands of years BC, about a mechanical human model.

Apart from this, it is not certain what the first robot known in history was, but if we consider the robot as a device consisting of electronic and mechanical units, the inventor of the robot is Al-Jazari(1136-1206), a Muslim scholar, engineer and considered the father of cybernetics, who conducted research during the golden age of Islam. Al-Jazari invented many mechanical automatons and he mentioned them in his book Kitâb-ul-Câmî Beyn-el-ilmi vel-Amel-in-Nâfı fi Sinâat-il-Hiyel. Among these vending machines; There are inventions such as robots that play saz, vending machines for ablution, water clocks with elephants, ewer with peacocks, oil lamp clocks, candle clocks, automatic water machines, combination locks, and coded safes.^[5]

Etymology

The above information showed the origin of robot history and the first robot examples, but the term "robot" was not used at that time. The term "robota" was first used by Karel Čapek, a Czech writer. And this word means "forced labor" or "servitude". Thus, Karel Čapek, coined the term "robot" in his 1920 play "Rossum’s Universal Robots" to refer to mass-produced workers that lacked creative thinking abilities.^[6]

On the other hand, in the 1940s, Isaac Asimov, an American scientist, and writer, for being the first person to use the term "robotics". Asimov, proposed the famous Three Rules of Robotics in 1968. These rules are:^[7]

1. Robots must never harm human beings.
2. Robots must follow instructions from humans without violating rule 1.
3. Robots must protect themselves without violating the other rules.

Below are the important developments of robots in history.

Types of Robots

There are many types of robots and different appearances. Robots have different appearances, designs, and levels of development depending on their areas of use and functions. For example, Industrial robots are generally large programmable machines frequently used in production and warehouse environments. Performs tasks such as welding, painting, assembly, and material handling. Autonomous mobile robots are used for purposes such as navigation and exploration. These robots can sense the environment with sensors and cameras and move autonomously. Cobots (Collaborative robots) are more advanced than other safe robots that work together with humans. Rather than doing the work of humans, these robots cooperate with them and learn something from them. They are used for physical and social support to people. Some robots can perform specific tasks on land, in the air or in water and are designed according to their location. There are also hybrid robots that can be found on land, in the air, and water. These robots can be used in versatile jobs.^[21][22][23]

Design, controls, intelligence, and communication features of robots; We mentioned they can have very different features depending on their usage areas. For example, how robots receive commands may be different. That is, while some robots are operated by humans, some can control themselves. In advanced robots,

We can think of the CPU (Central Processing Unit) as the brain or control center of the robot. because it is programmed with software that allows it to detect and execute commands from sensors and control other parts of the robot. More advanced robots are equipped with artificial intelligence, and memory allows storing and learning some repetitive information.^[25]

Power Supply

A robot must have energy and power to work.

Industrial robots in factories and industries generally use electrical energy. Satellites or probes sent into space benefit from

Sensors are devices that convert physical quantities into electrical signals and detect, measure and detect certain parameters. Robots detect physical and chemical effects in their environment with the help of sensors. Examples of these effects are temperature, movement, pressure, and light. Sensors in robots transmit the electrical signals they receive from the environment to the controller, and the controller is the management center of activities, just like a human brain. These signals are transmitted to the actuators (just like a human effector organ) and thus the feedback mechanism works thanks to the sensors. Many types of sensors can be used in robots depending on their functions. Some types of sensors are:

• Force and torque sensors are the most commonly used sensor types. Deformations are converted into three force and torque components via a calibration matrix in the micrometer range, and it has a digital signal processor that captures and filters sensor data in case of deformation, calculates the measured data and sends it via the communication interface.^[28]

• contact sensors; With this sensor, the robot is designed to immediately stop movement when a human enters an area of influence that would cause harm to the robot. Thus, sensors are quite functional in terms of occupational safety.
• Positioning sensors have features like GPS and compass to find the location of objects.
• Vision sensors function like eyes. Light energy is detected as pixels and Images are detected with cameras, and with the machine vision algorithm, these images and objects become assets for the robot.^[29]
• Proprioceptive sensors enable the robot to plan and perceive its movement, balance control and coordination. These sensors include sensors such as potentiometers, gyroscopes, accelerometers, and magnetometers.^[30]
• Inductive sensors are sensors that interrupt or reduce the contact of metals with each other. This sensor creates an electric field with the help of an oscillator, and metals are affected by this electric field. There is a change in the output signal of the sensor and these signals are transmitted to the controller and evaluated, preventing wear on the metals in the joints of the robots.^[31]

Additionally, robots have numerous sensors, such as magnetoresistive, magnetostrictive, gas, humidity, pH, ultrasonic, laser, touch, radar, optical and acoustic, depending on their functions.

Actuators

Actuators are small motors that convert the energy in the robot into movement as a result of signals coming from the robot's sensors. just like a person's muscles. So, without actuators, a robot cannot move. Advanced robots often have more advanced actuators. This allows robots to make their movements more precisely and gracefully. We can give an example of this: humanoid robots can hold an object with their hands and place it in the appropriate place. Actuators generally provide movement by making rotational or linear motion. Actuators generally work with the help of air, electricity, and fluids. Some types of actuators are given below.^[32]

• Electric motors:

In electric motors, the force generated in the magnetic field rotates the rotor with a large torque effect, this movement creates a dynamic effect on the robot through gears and belts. Thus, the robot moves due to these features. We can also examine electric motors in two types: DC and AC. DC motors working with direct current create a magnetic torque effect by using commutators and brushes to create a constant magnetic field. AC motors operating with alternating current use the stator, which is a static part of the motor, and the rotors, which are rotating parts, to create a constant magnetic field. Electric motors work very fast. It is frequently used in jobs that require quickness and precision.^[33]

• Hydraulic Actuators:

hydraulic actuators provide movement using pressurized fluid. Because of this feature, it is used in heavy tasks that a human can never handle. Therefore, it is generally used to carry heavy loads on construction sites and in industry. The hydraulic actuator contains a fluid motor. According to Pascal's principle, the pressure applied to fluids is transmitted equally to every part of the fluid. hydraulic actuators also work according to this principle. Piston is used here. It works with a piston, connecting rod and crankshaft. The connecting rod is a part that connects the piston to the crankshaft, and as a result of the linear movement of the piston, it enables the crankshaft to apply torque, and thus the engine produces power.^[34] By applying pressure to the liquid (usually oil) compressed in a closed space through the piston, the pressure energy of the fluid is converted into mechanical energy.^[35]

• Pneumatic Actuators:

Pneumatic actuators enable movement using compressed air. It has a simple structure and low cost compared to other actuators. It is generally used in repetitive tasks. These actuators contain compressed, high-pressure air. When air is released, its concentration decreases and its volume expands greatly. As a result of this process, various movements of the robots are achieved.^[36]

Effectors

The parts of robots that perform the given task, do the actual work, and interact with the environment are called effectors. Sometimes "end-effector" can also be used instead of this term. Thanks to these effectors, robots perform tasks such as holding, grasping, cutting, painting and carrying objects.

Some examples of effectors used in robots are: screwdrivers, paint sprayers, welding torches, cameras, sensors, drills, laser, fingers, claws, pincers, pegs, grippers, shovels, hammers, light sources...^[37]

Additionally, as the sophistication of robots increases, the sensitivity of the effectors generally increases. For example, a gripper only provides grasping and dragging, while a humanoid robot's fingers perform much more precise work.^[38]

References