ESSEC Business School

Coordinates: 49°01′59″N 2°04′40″E / 49.03306°N 2.07778°E / 49.03306; 2.07778
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

ESSEC Business School
École Supérieure des Sciences Economiques et Commerciales
President
Vincenzo Esposito Vinzi[3]
Academic staff
142[1]
100% PhD.;[4]
36% female;[4]
58% international[4]
Students5,000[1]
Location
Paris, France[5]
Queenstown, Singapore[5]
Rabat, Morocco[5]
LanguageEnglish-only & French-only instruction
ColorsWhite and Black
   
Websitewww.essec.edu

The École Supérieure des Sciences Economiques et Commerciales, also known as ESSEC Business School or simply ESSEC, is a business school and grande école based in France. Founded in 1907, its main campus is located in Cergy in the île-de-France region but also has locations in La Défense, Rabat, and Singapore,[6] which are used in particular in the ESSEC Global BBA and ESSEC Executive MBA programs.

It was founded by Jesuits in response to the creation of HEC Paris, it was independent of any chamber of commerce and industry before 1981. It was then under the control of the Versailles, which became the CCI of Paris Île-de-France in 2013. Today, ESSEC is a member of the CY Alliance, formerly the Université Paris-Seine.

The ESSEC group offers

specialized masters (SM), a master's degree in business administration
(MBA), and doctorates.

The historical rivalry of HEC Paris,[7][8] ESCP Business School, and ESSEC is sometimes referred to as the 'three Parisians' group, a term used to denote three of the most well-known business schools in France.

History

Foundation (1907–1913)

The École Supérieure des Sciences Economiques et Commerciales (ESSEC) was founded in 1907 under the Economic Institute by Ferdinand Le Pelletier in Paris. Its creation followed the movement of other private business schools created under Catholic guardianship in the early twentieth century such as HEC Nord (which later became

EDHEC) by the Catholic Institute of Lille or ESSCA by the Institute Catholic of Angers.[9]

The establishment of

secular and republican ideology of the state.[11] The goal of the new institution was to "train leaders for a commercial and economic career, which requires competent men, imbued with Christian and human values".[12] The school was located at the École Sainte Geneviève (created by Jesuits in 1854) in the Latin Quarter. The first class had seven students and studies lasted two years. In 1909, an optional third year was introduced.[13]

The original course was structured around general subjects including law, accounting, languages and techniques. With the introduction of Christian moral values, students began to attend the apologetics conference every week in the chapel of the École Sainte Geneviève. Technical education (calligraphy, shorthand, drafting of commercial documents) was complemented by scientific education (physics, chemistry, factory visits).[10]

1913–1940

With the application of the

Catholic Institute of Paris or ICP. As a consequence, the school resources were significantly reduced. For instance, it only had one amphitheatre borrowed from ICP and the elementary section was abolished. During this time, the disciplines taught, which remained the close standard until 1960, including languages, history of trade, commercial geography, political economy, law and accounting. An emphasis was on language teaching 10 hours per week (4 hours of English and German, 1 hour of Italian and Spanish[10]

The school experienced difficulty surviving during the First World War. In 1914, it had only four students in the first year and two in the second year. It temporarily closed its doors and only reopened in 1915. The third optional year was dropped, and the school did not regain financial stability until 1920 when it welcomed more than 50 students in the first year. In 1923, the Students' Association was created with a solidarity fund for war widows and orphans. In 1926, the first directory of graduates was published and three years later, the first courses in business ethics were given. By 1930, the number of students increased to 150 people.[11]

Against the crisis of the 1930s, ESSEC had to reduce its tuition fees to attract students who preferred

law studies
. Due to the gap from 1914-1918 and the economic crisis, the situation became even more difficult. The school was forced to accept high school graduates, uncertified examiners, and even freelance auditors who took uncertified courses.

In 1932, the Student Office was created and in 1937, the first scholarships were distributed, marking the start of a social assistance policy[10]

1940–1960

The reform was done under the effort of Camille Donjon in 1939, with the introduction of selection at the school entrance. A preparatory class for the exam was set up in 1941. During this time, ESSEC refused to join the unified system of écoles de commerce established by the decree of 3 December 1947 which mentioned that the State now supports the implementation of preparatory classes on the territory.[10]

As

ESCP joined this system, ESSEC positioned itself as a challenger and kept its preparatory classes. To level its competition, ESSEC altered its school tenure from two to three years starting from 1947. This lasted until 1951 when ESSEC closed its own preparatory classes and opened to candidates for public preparatory classes. In 1950, the first compulsory internship was set up, lasted for three months at the end of studies.[10][11]

1960–1970

Junior ESSEC Conseil Logo
ESSEC Mardis Logo

In 1960, Gilbert Olivier replaced Father Donjon as the dean of ESSEC. His arrival, coupled with developments linked to competition, would sway the Christian identity of the school. He began the transformation by launching a survey for students on the content of courses and the pedagogy. The result showed that only a minority of students were satisfied with the teaching. Teaching was judged "Scholarly, serious and lacking in openness".[10]

Given the results of this survey, a gradual reform was put in place. Technical subjects such as chemistry and physics were abandoned, teaching content was adapted to the company demand and the human factor was taken into account with the introduction of courses in sociology and human resources. In 1965, marketing classes were introduced. Diverse teaching methods such as conferences were set up, similar to what HEC Paris and Sciences Po offered. During this time, ESSEC introduced teaching methods commonly used in U.S. business schools. Furthermore, the recruitment was diversified with the introduction of the Admis on Title in 1966, which also marked the opening of the school to women. However, preparatory classes were not yet being open to women students.[10]

Associative life also began in the early 1960s with the creation of the ESSEC Mardis in 1961 and the Junior Enterprise in 1967. The former is a student forum of ESSEC which occasionally invites speakers from French art, sports, politics and economic spaces every year. It also hosted debates led by two students from the association.[10]

The entrance exam was reformatted in 1969, with the elimination of the chemistry and physics test and remodelling of the oral exam which now aimed to test the logical reasoning of the candidates and not only their general knowledge.

Psychometric tests and personality interviews were also introduced. Gilbert Olivier also tried to reform the program of preparatory classes to bring them closer to commercial education but gave up due to opposition from HEC and other business schools.[11]

1970–1990

Cergy-Pontoise is located within the Val-d'Oise department

With the reform in place, the number of students grew, and the school was starting to run out of space. The school occupied three amphitheatres at the ICP and later, in 1971, administrative services would be moved to Raspail Boulevard. In 1965, a commission was set up to consider moving the school to a new location. Projects were planned in Bagneux or Gentilly, which were ultimately abandoned. On 5 July 1967, a decision was taken by ESSEC to move to a new site in the town of Cergy-Pontoise where the current campus is located.[14]

During this time, ESSEC was able to break free from the ICP. In 1968, the latter recognized the financial and administrative independence of the school. In 1969, the ESSEC group was founded, consisting of the school, CERESSEC, a Research Center and ISSEC, an institute for executives. ICP, however, retained one-third of the seats of the Board of Directors and the appointment of the director of the school must still be approved by the rector of the ICP.[14]

The move to Cergy-Pontoise polarized the community. It was less well received by students due to the lack of public transportation to the area. Some teachers fueled the controversy, aware that such a move would entail a potential replacement of faculty members. The new school extended and included a large amphitheatre of 300 seats, eight small amphitheatres with 80 seats equipped with closed circuit television, a computer centre, a large language laboratory, a library, a sports hall, a restaurant university and 48 classrooms. Its reception areas (foyers, cafeterias, and chapel) were to be available to the public in Cergy. In exchange, student housing was made available nearby.[15]

Before 1971, ESSEC relied mainly on executives working in companies as its teaching staff. However, the school started to set up its permanent faculty. The grants awarded by

FNEGE
to finance studies of young professors or executives in the United States, who wished to return to teaching to fill the French "management gap", allowed ESSEC to build a pool of qualified teachers. In 1972, 9 out of 20 professors were former ESSECs who completed their training in the United States. The arrival of FNEGE Fellows, who came back from the United States, would stimulate a curriculum reform. A core curriculum was set up in the first year based on fundamentals while a course à la carte was introduced from the second year. This format is still in effect today. A minimum duration of 12 months of internship was also introduced. Furthermore, the ESSEC selectivity increased significantly when application numbers grew from 700 candidates in 1960, to 2,800 in 1973.

The decision to move to

Val d'Oise. This resulted in an obligation to repay up to 4-5 million francs yearly. These financial expenses represented 11.7% of the ESSEC budget in 1975 (compared to 5% for INSEAD). The operating budget exploded from 6 million francs in 1972 to 28 million in 1979. At one point, tuition fees increased until it doubled that of HEC. In 1979, the financial crisis erupted, exacerbated by an environment of high interest rates and an economic slowdown related to the oil shock. Ultimately, the school hit a deficit of 10.4 million francs that year. The apprenticeship tax, the introduction of continuing education and the donation of student's parents were used for funding. The consideration of the ESSEC's nationalization and possible attachment to a larger university were considered, with those ideas coming within the field of possibilities with the election of François Mitterrand to the presidency of the Republic.[16]

Gilbert Olivier strongly opposed the plan, seeing it as a failure of the initial project of the school to emancipate itself from the higher education system. Financial conditions ultimately improved, permitting the school to operate without taking such actions. The rescue was made possible by the Versailles Chamber of Commerce, which injected 10 million francs to cover the deficit of ESSEC, bought 51% of ESSEC's ownership for 12 million francs and committed to pay an annual subsidy of 6 million francs from 1982 to 1989. In exchange, ESSEC retained its legal autonomy (and did not become a part of the chamber like the case of HEC Paris and ESCP with the Paris Chamber of Commerce), but had a governance system with a management board and supervisory board. This intrusion of supervision and the absence of representation of the students and professors in the general assembly triggered strikes and the launching of petitions against the plan. The agreement was finally signed on 6 April 1981. The fear of control of the school and its pedagogy ultimately proved unfounded.[10]

2000–present

In 1999, the school decided to rename the

ICN Nancy and ESC Grenoble. ESSEC then reviewed its international agreements to bring the program to the MBA or Master's level.[17]

The repositioning of the program was heavily criticized by

EM Lyon and Université Paris-Dauphine, so much so that Ali Laïdi in his book” Secrets of the Economic War” (2004) said that HEC Paris would have mounted a destabilization operation toward ESSEC by attacking its MBA position. The case led to the opening of an investigation and resolution by the Paris Chamber of Commerce.[18]

In 2005, ESSEC expanded its campus with the inauguration of the Nautile building and further, in 2007, with the multipurpose room, the Dome, which has a capacity of 2,700 people, and the Galion. The buildings were designed by Marc Seifert, son of Ivan Seifert who designed the original campus in 1973. In 2008, the library was expanded. Renovation of the restaurant area followed the following year.[19][20]

In March 2006, ESSEC Business School inaugurated its new campus in Singapore within the National Library, the ESSEC Asian Center.[21]

In 2010, ESSEC presented its strategic plan for 2010–2015. The program portfolio was repositioned: the

EPSCI (post-baccalaureate program) became the bachelor of ESSEC, and the name of MBA was abandoned and replaced with MSc in Management. The group's communication was unified under the name ESSEC Business School. A fundraising strategy of 150 million euros was announced. The school also aimed to be one of the 20 best Business Schools in the world, to join the 10 best schools in Asia and to make it into the top 5 in Europe. The decision to exclude the MBA name from its Grand Ecole program was a strategy pushback for the school. As a result, this program disappeared from the Financial Times's rankings of both Masters in Management and MBA because of its hybrid nature. The dean of the time, Pierre Tapie, however, did not regret this decision, because he believed that the school had gained a reputation. In fact, in 2007, the Wall Street Journal ranked ESSEC Grande École program 7th in the world, ahead of HEC and INSEAD.[22]

During this time, the school expanded its double-degree agreements with the

ENS in 2011, University of Queensland, three South Korean institutions in 2014 and Bocconi University in 2015.[23][24]

In 2014,

startup incubator, ESSEC Ventures and established an experimental research laboratory, K-Lab.[25]

Grande école degrees

ESSEC Business School is a grande école, a French institution of

French public university system. Grandes écoles are selective academic institutions that admit students through a highly competitive process, and a significant proportion of their graduates occupy prominent positions in French society.[26][27][28] Similar to the Ivy League in the United States, Oxbridge in the United Kingdom, and C9 League in China, graduation from a grande école is often considered a key credential for securing top positions in government, administration and the corporate sector in France.[29][30]

The degrees offered are accredited by the

Bachelor's degrees, Master's degrees and Doctorate degrees. The Bachelor's and Master's programs are organized into semesters: 6 for the Bachelor's and 4 for the Master's.[33][34] These programs include various "parcours" or paths, based on Unités d'enseignement (UE) or modules, each carrying a defined number of European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits. Sstudents accumulate these credits, which are generally transferable between programs. A Bachelor's degree is awarded upon completion of 180 ECTS credits (bac + 3), and a Master's degree iupon completion of an additional 120 ECTS credits (bac +5). The Programme Grande École (PGE) concludes with the awarding of a Master's in Management (MiM) degree.[33][34][35]

Research

Departments

The school has eight research departments in different fields of human sciences: Accounting and Management Control; Business Law and Environment; Economy; Finance; Management; Operations Management; Marketing; Information Systems, Decision Sciences and Statistics.[36]

Further information: Law and management

CERESSEC

The ESSEC research center, or Centre de recherche ESSEC business school (CERESSEC), created in 1969. Supervised by AERES since 2013, the research focuses on scientific area in partnership with the Ministry of Higher Education and Research.[32]

According to the HCERES report on 13 May 2019, CERESSEC is "a leading research laboratory at the national and international level, it is a leading French center in the field of management and related disciplines." It supports the school's influence in national and international rankings. The research center brings together 165 professors, on two sites in Cergy and Singapore. The professors work on nine research themes: Accounting and management control; Economy; Finance; Information System; Law, Negotiation and Consultation; Management; Marketing; Management of Operations; and Statistics.[37]

ESSEC Iréné

ESSEC Iréné is the Institute for Research and Education on Negotiation in Europe created in 1996. The research focuses on several topics related to negotiation, mediation, stakeholder dialogue, and conflict resolution. The stakeholders involved include academics, senior civil servants, elected representatives, managers and employees of businesses, trade unionists, and social mediators.[38]

ESSEC Behavioural Research Lab

This institute is an interdisciplinary research platform which focusses on the study of human behavior in a controlled environment. The study is mainly conducted in the fields such as

behavioral and experimental economics.[39]

Organization and governance

ESSEC is a non-profit organization. Its management consists of a Director General (School Dean), assisted by its executive committee, made up in particular of the deans of programs, professors and research body. They report to the board, which administers the association, and is made up of two representatives of the Paris Ile-de-France CCI, a representative of the alumni association, and two qualified professionals.[40]

The supervisory board is made up of twenty-eight members, six representatives of the Paris Ile-de-France CCI, two members of the Institute Catholique de Paris, five former students, one member of the Confederation of SMEs, four students, five professors including the dean of the professors, two members of the administrative staff of the school, and three qualified professionals.

The general assembly is the guarantor of the stability of the statutes of the association, and it is composed of the president of the CCI of Paris Île-de-France, a representative of the association of graduates, a representative of the Confederation of SMEs, the dean of professors, and the rector of the Catholic Institute of Paris (ICP).[40]

Deans of ESSEC Business School

From To Name
1939 1960 Camille Donjon
1960 1980 Gilbert Olivier
1980 1987 Julien Coudy
1987 1988 Jean-Claude Tournand
1988 1989 Jean Castarède
1990 1997 Jean-Pierre Boisivon
1998 2000 Gérard Valin
2001 2013 Pierre Tapie
2013 2017 Jean-Michel Blanquer
2017 present Vincenzo Esposito Vinzi

Rankings

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
FT - European Business School 18th 23rd 8th 7th 6th[41] 8th[42] 9th[43]
Undergraduate - France
Le Point - Classement des Bachelors (France) 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st[44] 1st 1st
L'Étudiant [fr] - Classement des Bachelors (France) 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st[45] -
Graduate - Worldwide
FT - Master in Management (Worldwide) 3rd 5th 4th 3rd 3rd[46] 6th[47] 6th[48]
FT - Master in Finance (Worldwide) 7th 3rd 5th - 4th[49] 4th[50] -
QS - Master in Strategy & Management of International Business (Worldwide) - 4th 4th 3rd 3rd[51] 3rd[52] 3rd[53]
QS - Master in Finance (Worldwide) - 10th 9th 9th 7th[54] 7th[55] 7th[56]
QS - Master in Data Sciences & Business Analytics (Worldwide) - - 4th 3rd 3rd[57] 3rd[57] 4th[58]
QS - Master in Marketing Management and Digital - - - - - - 4th[59]
QS - Global MBA (Worldwide) - 27th 26th 30th 27th[60] 27th[60] 27th[61]
Executive - Worldwide
FT - Executive Education Open (Worldwide) 18th 24th 23rd 21st 16th[62] 13th[63] 12th[64]
FT - Executive Education Customised (Worldwide) 15th 17th 12th 5th 3rd[65] - 5th[66]
FT - Executive MBA (Worldwide) 45th 47th 47th 45th 32nd[67]
The Economist - Executive MBA (Worldwide) - - 17th[68]
QS - Executive MBA (Worldwide) - 7th 10th 10th[69] 8th[70]

Campuses

ESSEC Business School, Cergy-Pontoise ESSEC Executive Education at la Defense, Paris ESSEC Asia-Pacific in Singapore

ESSEC has 4 campuses: Cergy, Singapore, La Défense and Rabat. An Africa-Indian Ocean campus project in Mauritius was announced in 2016 but was canceled in 2017.[71]

Cergy campus

The main ESSEC campus is located in Cergy. Inaugurated in 1973, the site is located in the city and open to the public, mixing students and inhabitants in the area. In 2007, two new buildings were constructed: the Dome and the Galion, both significantly increased Cergy campus grounds. The Dome, which acts as a multipurpose room, can accommodate up to 2,700 people. It is used for business forums (Career Fairs), conferences, exam site, and cultural and social activities. The Galion is an administrative and educational building. It houses 54 offices and meeting rooms, 8 amphitheaters, and 12 classrooms as well as open work spaces.At the end of 2018, the Campus 2020 project was announced, which intends to modernize the Cergy campus by 2023, for a total cost of 35 million euros (private and public funding). Among the main lines of this project are the construction of a sports centre of nearly 2,000m2, the redevelopment of the old gymnasium and the existing administration building into spaces intended for research activities.[72]

La Défense campus

ESSEC has had premises in the

CNIT in La Défense since 1989, mainly used for continuing education and the MBA program.[73]

Singapore campus

The ESSEC Asia-Pacific campus in Singapore was announced in October 2012, by Pierre Tapie shortly before his departure.[74] The new campus was inaugurated in May 2015, by Jean-Michel Blanquer.[75] ESSEC has been present in Asia since 1980 with a permanent office in Japan and Singapore since 2005 through the ESSEC Asian Centre located in the National Library Building.[76] After considering Tokyo, Shanghai and Singapore, among others, the school finally chose Singapore latter in 2005, in particular for its position as a gateway to Asia. Located in Nepal Hill, the campus spans five levels, 6,500m2, can accommodate 1,500 students per year and cost 24 million euros, fully funded by ESSEC. It was designed by Singaporean architect, Dr. Liu Thai Ker (former architect planning Singapore).[77][78][79]

Rabat campus

The creation of this campus was announced in November 2015, by Jean-Michel Blanquer and was inaugurated in April 2017.[80] Morocco was chosen for the already effective presence of ESSEC's partner CentraleSupélec, its proximity to France and the large number of Moroccan alumni.[81] Located 15 km from Rabat, the campus covers 6,000 m2 and has a capacity of 480 students. The campus is located right in the Casablanca - Rabat - Kenitra axis. The campus was built specifically for ESSEC by the Addoha real estate group to which the school pays rent (proportional to the number of students hosted during the first three years, then €360,000 / year beyond), with the possibility of purchasing the premises after nine years.[82][83] At its first school year, the campus had seventy students, including eighteen Moroccans.[84]

Programs

ESSEC Global BBA

Main article: ESSEC Global BBA

The undergraduate program was initially created in 1975 by ESSEC Group to prepare students to meet the needs of French firms launching operations on the international market. It was formerly known as

EPSCI
, "École des Practiciens du Commerce International", and is now referred to as "ESSEC Global BBA".

The Global BBA lasts for four years and is designed for candidates graduated from high school (in France "Baccalauréat").

At the end of the program, each student will have completed a minimum of 12 months of coursework abroad (each student will do two exchange programs abroad), a one-month humanitarian project and between 11 and 18 months of professional experience, which may also take place abroad.

Master in Management - Grande École program

First ESSEC Graduates, class of 1909

ESSEC's postgraduate programme is its

MBA programs).[85]
It is the flagship program of the school.

The ESSEC MSc in management has been historically designed for candidates who have completed

Grandes Ecoles which includes a written part (lasting three weeks) as well as an oral part (one to four days for each grande école).[87] It is commonly considered the most prestigious path after High School in France (only 5% of a generation will be admitted to a prépa) with Law and Medicine, and consists of intensive courses in Mathematics, History and Geography, Economy, Literature, Philosophy, and two foreign languages. In 2015, among more than 20,000 students enrolled in classe préparatoire (business section),[88] 5,614 applied to ESSEC concours (considered one of the most difficult), only 890 were invited to oral examination and 380 were eventually admitted.[89]
This means an acceptance rate of 6.77%. Going outside during lesson time is also forbidden on school grounds.

ESSEC offer an à la carte program – whether following courses at ESSEC or at a partner institution, going abroad or focusing on an associative project etc.

Master in Finance

The Master in Finance replaced the old Master Techniques Financières since 2016. The Master in Finance is recognized by the French Higher Education and Research Ministry as master's degree.

There are three specialized tracks:

  • Corporate Finance: M&A, Private Equity, ECM, DCM, Equity Research, Leveraged and Project Finance;
  • Financial Markets: Sales, Trading, Risk Management and Portfolio Management;
  • FinTech & Analytics: Quantitative Asset and Risk Management, Data-based Market Making and Trading and Quant Hedge Funds (with a solid Math/Physics degree).

The Master in Finance has a partnership with the Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA).

ESSEC M.S. Advanced Masters

The

Conférence des Grandes Ecoles
" in France. These programs are specialised to allow students finishing their studies or young professionals to complete their initial training (usually science or engineering) by acquiring complementary knowledge.

ESSEC Global MBA

The Global MBA at ESSEC Business School is a 12-month, full-time MBA program with an emphasis on emerging markets and experiential learning. It offers two Majors allowing students to specialise in the following areas: Luxury Brand Management, Strategy and Digital Leadership.[90]

PhD in Business Administration

The PhD trains future professors,

researchers
and consultants. Before starting their dissertation work, students must follow a two-year program of courses and seminars that ends with preliminary examinations and a dissertation proposal. The curriculum starts with an intensive period of interdisciplinary training common to all students. This is followed by research training for the chosen field of specialization.

ESSEC Executive Education

More than 5,000 managers participate in ESSEC Exec Ed programs every year, primarily at La Défense campus, located in the heart of Paris' financial district and ESSEC's Singapore campus.

ESSEC & Mannheim Executive MBA

ESSEC and Mannheim Business School launched their joint Executive MBA Program in 2004. Building on the first established Executive MBAs in Europe by ESSEC since 1994, several modules are proposed in Mannheim, Paris, Singapore and various other locations worldwide in partner business schools.

International partnerships

ESSEC partner University of Chicago's Harper Library

ESSEC has developed partnerships with universities all over the world for exchange and double degree programs, including

EAESP
, among many others.

ESSEC alumni

The association of graduates of the ESSEC or ESSEC Alumni group was founded in 1923, with the mission of connecting the 60,000+ graduates of ESSEC.[91] It spans 75 countries and five continents and organizes more than a thousand events per year through its two hundred volunteers and employees.[92] The network partners with 60 corporations, consists of 17 regional clubs and 73 chapters around the world. The association also publishes the alumni magazine, Reflets, five times a year.[93]

Since 2017, the association has maintained a physical office on the Cergy campus.[94] The same year lifelong ESSEC Alumni membership became included in tuition fees.[95]

Notable alumni

See also: Category:ESSEC Business School alumni

Business

Politics

Academics

Other well-known alumni

Controversies

In 2020, its campus in Singapore came under intense controversy when one of its students, Louise Pizon-Hébert, made multiple posts on Instagram during Chinese New Year by making slit-eyed gestures and using the pejorative term "ching chong" as a caption while wearing the cheongsam. The school has claimed that its disciplinary committee were currently "looking into the situation". However, to date, the results from the committee have not been made public.[127][128][129]

See also

References

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49°01′59″N 2°04′40″E / 49.03306°N 2.07778°E / 49.03306; 2.07778

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