Literature

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Not to be confused with Literature (card game).

Literature
Oral literature
Major written forms
Long prose fiction
Short prose fiction
Prose genres
Fiction
Non-fiction
Poetry genres
Narrative
Lyric
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Dramatic genres
History
Lists and outlines
Theory and criticism
 Literature portal

Literature is any collection of

orature[3] much of which has been transcribed.[4][5] Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment
, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.

Literature, as an art form, can also include works in various

books, articles or other written information on a particular subject.[6][7]

Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammar", originally "writing formed with letters", from litera/littera "letter".[8] In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts.[9][10] Literature is often referred to synecdochically as "writing", especially creative writing, and poetically as "the craft of writing" (or simply "the craft"). Syd Field described his discipline, screenwriting, as "a craft that occasionally rises to the level of art."[11]

Developments in print technology have allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, which now include electronic literature.

Definitions

Definitions of literature have varied over time.

preliterate
culture".

A

1910–1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, which classified literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing".[14]

History

Main article: History of literature

Oral literature

Main article: Oral literature
See also: African literature § Oral literature
manaschi performing part of the Epic of Manas at a yurt camp in Karakol, Kyrgyzstan

The use of the term "literature" here poses some issue due to its origins in the Latin littera, "letter", essentially writing. Alternatives such as "oral forms" and "oral genres" have been suggested but the word literature is widely used.[5]

Australian Aboriginal culture has thrived on oral traditions and oral histories passed down through tens of thousands of years. In a study published in February 2020, new evidence showed that both

Aboriginal Australian people of south-western Victoria, which tell of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in existence.[16] An axe found underneath volcanic ash in 1947 had already proven that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower Hill.[15]

Oral literature is an ancient human tradition found in "all corners of the world".[17] Modern archaeology has been unveiling evidence of the human efforts to preserve and transmit arts and knowledge that depended completely or partially on an oral tradition, across various cultures:

The Judeo-Christian Bible reveals its oral traditional roots; medieval European manuscripts are penned by performing scribes; geometric vases from archaic Greece mirror Homer's oral style. (...) Indeed, if these final decades of the millennium have taught us anything, it must be that oral tradition never was the other we accused it of being; it never was the primitive, preliminary technology of communication we thought it to be. Rather, if the whole truth is told, oral tradition stands out as the single most dominant communicative technology of our species as both a historical fact and, in many areas still, a contemporary reality.[17]

The earliest poetry is believed to have been recited or sung, employed as a way of remembering history, genealogy, and law.[18]

In Asia, the transmission of folklore, mythologies as well as scriptures in ancient India, in different Indian religions, was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques.[19]

The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down.[20] According to Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a literate society".[21]

All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely so.[22] Homer's epic poetry, states Michael Gagarin, was largely composed, performed and transmitted orally.[23] As folklores and legends were performed in front of distant audiences, the singers would substitute the names in the stories with local characters or rulers to give the stories a local flavor and thus connect with the audience, but making the historicity embedded in the oral tradition as unreliable.[24] The lack of surviving texts about the Greek and Roman religious traditions have led scholars to presume that these were ritualistic and transmitted as oral traditions, but some scholars disagree that the complex rituals in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were an exclusive product of an oral tradition.[25]

Writing systems are not known to have existed among

Native North Americans (north of Mesoamerica) before contact with Europeans. Oral storytelling traditions flourished in a context without the use of writing to record and preserve history, scientific knowledge, and social practices.[26] While some stories were told for amusement and leisure, most functioned as practical lessons from tribal experience applied to immediate moral, social, psychological, and environmental issues.[27] Stories fuse fictional, supernatural, or otherwise exaggerated characters and circumstances with real emotions and morals as a means of teaching. Plots often reflect real life situations and may be aimed at particular people known by the story's audience. In this way, social pressure could be exerted without directly causing embarrassment or social exclusion.[28] For example, rather than yelling, Inuit parents might deter their children from wandering too close to the water's edge by telling a story about a sea monster with a pouch for children within its reach.[29]

The enduring significance of oral traditions is underscored in a systemic literature review on indigenous languages in South Africa, within the framework of contemporary

linguistic challenges. Oral literature is crucial for cultural preservation, linguistic diversity, and social justice, as evidenced by the postcolonial struggles and ongoing initiatives to safeguard and promote South African indigenous languages.[30]

Oratory

Oratory or the art of public speaking was considered a literary art for a significant period of time.[6] From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a central role in Western education in training orators, lawyers, counselors, historians, statesmen, and poets.[31][note 1]

Writing

Further information: History of writing
Kish tablet from Sumer with pictographic writing; may be the earliest known writing, 3500 BC. Ashmolean Museum

Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.[33] Though in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have already emerged because of the need to record historical and environmental events. Subsequent innovations included more uniform, predictable legal systems, sacred texts, and the origins of modern practices of scientific inquiry and knowledge-consolidation, all largely reliant on portable and easily reproducible forms of writing.

Early written literature

Main articles: History of literature, Ancient literature, and History of books

autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early Middle Kingdom (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created.[37]

Many works of early periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit

Book of Songs (1046–c. 600 BC).[40][41][42]

Inscribed hieroglyphics cover an obelisk in foreground. A stone statue is in background.
Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name "Ramesses II", from the Luxor Temple, New Kingdom

In

paper making and woodblock printing, produced the world's first print cultures.[43] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou dynasty (769‒269 BC).[44] The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War, c. 5th century BC) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, c. 94 BC). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BC, and attributed to the blind 5th-century BC historian Zuo Qiuming.[45]

In

Iron Age.[48] The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata[49][50] and the Ramayana,[51] with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD such as Ramcharitmanas.[52]

The earliest known Greek writings are

Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC), written in the Linear B syllabary on clay tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories, receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered.[53][54] Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, the original decipherers of Linear B, state that literature almost certainly existed in Mycenaean Greece,[54] but it was either not written down or, if it was, it was on parchment or wooden tablets, which did not survive the destruction of the Mycenaean palaces in the twelfth century BC.[54]
classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes (c. 446 – c. 386 BC) provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[63]

The

Persian period (539–333 BC, probably 450–350 BC).[64] This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.[65] This represents a major source of Christianity's Bible, which has had a major influence on Western literature.[66]

The beginning of

Roman literature dates to 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek play.[67] Literature in Latin
would flourish for the next six centuries, and includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings.

The

Qur'an (610 AD to 632 AD),[68] the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arab language, and marked the beginning of Islamic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.[28][69] As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.[28]

Theological works in Latin were the dominant form of

romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal.[70]

Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the European

Medieval romance developed into the novel.[72]

Publishing

The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang dynasty China, the world's earliest dated printed book, AD 868 (British Library)

Publishing became possible with the invention of writing but became more practical with the invention of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes.

The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware c. 1045 and was spread to Korea later. Around 1230, Koreans invented a metal type movable printing. East metal movable type was spread to Europe between the late 14th century and early 15th century.[73][74][75][76] In c. 1450, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely available.

Early printed books, single sheets, and images created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."[77]

Eventually, printing enabled other forms of publishing besides books. The history of newspaper publishing began in Germany in 1609, with the publishing of magazines following in 1663.

University discipline

In England

Main article: English studies

In late 1820s England, growing political and social awareness, "particularly among the

London University". This further developed into the idea of the study of literature being "the ideal carrier for the propagation of the humanist cultural myth of a well educated, culturally harmonious nation".[78]

America

Main article: American literature (academic discipline)

Women and literature

Further information: French literature, German literature, Russian literature, and English poetry § Women poets in the 18th century

The widespread education of women was not common until the nineteenth century, and because of this, literature until recently was mostly male dominated.[79]

George Sand was an idea. She has a unique place in our age.
Others are great men ... she was a great woman.

Victor Hugo, Les funérailles de George Sand[80]

There were few English-language women poets whose names are remembered until the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century some notable individuals include Emily Brontë, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Emily Dickinson (see American poetry). But while generally women are absent from the European cannon of Romantic literature, there is one notable exception, the French novelist and memoirist Amantine Dupin (1804 – 1876) best known by her pen name George Sand.[81][82] One of the more popular writers in Europe in her lifetime,[83] being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s,[84] Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European Romantic era. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) is the first major English woman novelist, while Aphra Behn is an early female dramatist.

Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded between 1901 and 2020 to 117 individuals: 101 men and 16 women. Selma Lagerlöf (1858 – 1940) was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, which she was awarded in 1909. Additionally, she was the first woman to be granted a membership in The Swedish Academy in 1914.[85]

Feminist scholars have since the twentieth century sought to expand the literary canon to include more women writers.

Children's literature

The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) is a canonical piece of children's literature and one of the best-selling books ever published.[86]

A separate genre of children's literature only began to emerge in the eighteenth century, with the development of the concept of

childhood.[87]: x–xi  The earliest of these books were educational books, books on conduct, and simple ABCs—often decorated with animals, plants, and anthropomorphic letters.[88]

Aesthetics

Further information:
Aesthetic judgment and Value judgment

Literary theory

Further information: Literary theory and Philosophy and literature § The philosophy of literature

A fundamental question of literary theory is "what is literature?" – although many contemporary theorists and literary scholars believe either that "literature" cannot be defined or that it can refer to any use of language.[89]

Literary fiction

Further information: Western canon § Literary canon
Raphael's Parnassus
fresco (1511), key figures in the Western canon

Literary fiction is a term used to describe fiction that explores any facet of the human condition, and may involve social commentary. It is often regarded as having more artistic merit than genre fiction, especially the most commercially oriented types, but this has been contested in recent years, with the serious study of genre fiction within universities.[90]

The following, by the award-winning British author William Boyd on the short story, might be applied to all prose fiction:

[short stories] seem to answer something very deep in our nature as if, for the duration of its telling, something special has been created, some essence of our experience extrapolated, some temporary sense has been made of our common, turbulent journey towards the grave and oblivion.[91]

The very best in literature is annually recognized by the Nobel Prize in Literature, which is awarded to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning).[92][93]

The value of imaginative literature

Some researchers suggest that literary fiction can play a role in an individual's psychological development.[94] Psychologists have also been using literature as a therapeutic tool.[95][96] Psychologist Hogan argues for the value of the time and emotion that a person devotes to understanding a character's situation in literature;[97] that it can unite a large community by provoking universal emotions, as well as allowing readers access to different cultures, and new emotional experiences.[98] One study, for example, suggested that the presence of familiar cultural values in literary texts played an important impact on the performance of minority students.[99]

Psychologist Maslow's ideas help literary critics understand how characters in literature reflect their personal culture and the history.[100] The theory suggests that literature helps an individual's struggle for self-fulfillment.[101][102]

The influence of religious texts

Further information: Islamic literature and King James Version § Influence

Religion has had a major influence on literature, through works like the Vedas, the Torah, the Bible,[103] and the Quran.[104][105][106]

The King James Version of the Bible has been called "the most influential version of the most influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language", "the most important book in English religion and culture", and "arguably the most celebrated book in the English-speaking world"[107] - principally because of its literary style and widespread distribution. Prominent atheist figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version as being "a giant step in the maturing of English literature" and "a great work of literature", respectively, with Dawkins adding, "A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian".[108][109]

Societies in which

literary studies
.

Types

Poetry

A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem in which the written words are arranged in such a way to produce a visual image.
Main article: Poetry

Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from

prose poem,[113] and more generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.[114] Abram Lipsky refers to it as an "open secret" that "prose is not distinguished from poetry by lack of rhythm".[115]

Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood to be something set in metrical lines: "any kind of subject consisting of Rhythm or Verses".[110] Possibly as a result of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics), "poetry" before the 19th century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art.[clarification needed][116] As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition;[117][118] hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature.

Prose

Main article: Prose

As noted above, prose generally makes far less use of the aesthetic qualities of language than poetry.

T.S. Eliot suggested that while: "the distinction between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure".[120] There are verse novels, a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of poetry rather than prose. Eugene Onegin (1831) by Alexander Pushkin is the most famous example.[121]

On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the case of ancient Greece] recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an "invention" properly associated with the classical period".[122]

Descartes (1596 – 1650), Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677) were published in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton
(d. 1727).

Novel

Main article: Novel
Sculpture in Berlin depicting a stack of books on which are inscribed the names of great German writers
See also: Genre fiction and Hypertext fiction

A novel is a long fictional narrative, usually written in prose. In English, the term emerged from the

Romance languages in the late 15th century, with the meaning of "news"; it came to indicate something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction.[124] The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvelous and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society".[125] Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo",[126] indicates the proximity of the forms.[127]

Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel",[128] the modern novel form emerges late in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century.[129] Initially subject to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and critically.[127][130][131]

Novella

Main article: Novella

The publisher Melville House classifies the novella as "too short to be a novel, too long to be a short story".[132] Publishers and literary award societies typically consider a novella to be between 17,000 and 40,000 words.[133]

Short story

Main article: Short story

A dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to, or whether one should, distinguish it from any short narrative and its contested origin,[134] that include the Bible, and Edgar Allan Poe.[135]

Graphic novel

Main article: Graphic novel

Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of artwork, dialogue, and text.

Electronic literature

digital devices
.

Nonfiction

Common literary examples of non-fiction include, the essay; travel literature; biography, autobiography and memoir; journalism; letter; diary; history, philosophy, economics; scientific, nature, and technical writings.[7][136]

Nonfiction can fall within the broad category of literature as "any collection of written work", but some works fall within the narrower definition "by virtue of the excellence of their writing, their originality and their general aesthetic and artistic merits".[137]

Drama

Cover of a 1921 libretto for Giordano's opera Andrea Chénier

Drama is literature intended for performance.[138] The form is combined with music and dance in opera and musical theatre (see libretto). A play is a written dramatic work by a playwright that is intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiefly dialogue between characters. A closet drama, by contrast, is written to be read rather than to be performed; the meaning of which can be realized fully on the page.[139] Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.

The earliest form of which there exists substantial knowledge is

mythological
themes,

In the twentieth century, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form, including radio, television and film.

Law

Law and literature

The law and literature movement focuses on the interdisciplinary connection between law and literature.

Copyright

Further information: History of copyright
The Library of the Palais Bourbon in Paris

Copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to make copies of a creative work, usually for a limited time.[140][141][142][143][144] The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself.[145][146][147]

United Kingdom

Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorized reproduction since at least 1710.[148] Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean "any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database."[149]

Literary works are all works of literature; that is all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).[150]

United States

The copyright law of the United States has a long and complicated history, dating back to colonial times. It was established as federal law with the Copyright Act of 1790. This act was updated many times, including a major revision in 1976.

European Union

The

Information Society Directive and the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market. Copyright in the Union is furthermore dependent on international conventions to which the European Union is a member (such as the TRIPS Agreement and conventions to which all Member States are parties (such as the Berne Convention
)).

Copyright in communist countries

Further information:
Copyright in Russia, Copyright law of the Soviet Union, and Intellectual property in China

Copyright in Japan

Berne convention in 1899, so its copyright law is in sync with most international regulations. The convention protected copyrighted works for 50 years after the author's death (or 50 years after publication for unknown authors and corporations). However, in 2004 Japan extended the copyright term to 70 years for cinematographic works. At the end of 2018, as a result of the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations, the 70 year term was applied to all works.[151]
This new term is not applied retroactively; works that had entered the public domain between 1999 and 2018 by expiration would remain in the public domain.

Censorship

Stalinist
authorities
Further information:
Theatre censorship, and Film censorship

Censorship of literature is employed by states, religious organizations, educational institutions, etc., to control what can be portrayed, spoken, performed, or written.[152] Generally such bodies attempt to ban works for political reasons, or because they deal with other controversial matters such as race, or sex.[153]

A notable example of censorship is James Joyce's novel Ulysses, which has been described by Russian-American novelist Vladimir Nabokov as a "divine work of art" and the greatest masterpiece of 20th century prose.[154] It was banned in the United States from 1921 until 1933 on the grounds of obscenity. Nowadays it is a central literary text in English literature courses, throughout the world.[155]

Awards

There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, genre, language, nationality and output (e.g. for first-time writers or debut novels).[156]

The

Man Booker International Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Hugo Award, Guardian First Book Award and the Franz Kafka Prize
.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within the field and has given rise to philological battles over its meaning in Ancient Greece.[32]
  2. ^ However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the award was given.

References

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  4. ^ Goody 1987.
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  8. ^ "literature (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
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  38. ^ Jacobs 1888, Introduction, page xv; Ryder 1925, Translator's introduction, quoting Hertel: "the original work was composed in Kashmir, about 200 B.C. At this date, however, many of the individual stories were already ancient."
  39. ^ Ryder 1925 Translator's introduction: "The Panchatantra is a niti-shastra, or textbook of niti. The word niti means roughly "the wise conduct of life." Western civilization must endure a certain shame in realizing that no precise equivalent of the term is found in English, French, Latin, or Greek. Many words are therefore necessary to explain what niti is, though the idea, once grasped, is clear, important, and satisfying."
  40. ^ Baxter (1992), p. 356.
  41. ^ Allan (1991), p. 39.
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  48. ^ Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BC over a period of several centuries. Flood 1996, p. 37
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