Edwin Ray Guthrie
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Edwin Ray Guthrie | |
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Seattle, Washington | |
Known for | One Trial Theory |
Edwin Ray Guthrie (
Guthrie is best known for his theory that all learning is based on a
- "A combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that movement".[2]
One word that his coworkers and students used to describe Guthrie and his theories was "simple",[3] referring to how he described complex ideas in simple terms.[1] Some critics have considered his teaching style defective, with one claiming that "...many reviews of Guthrie in the literature have mistaken incompleteness for simplicity".[4]
Early life and education
Guthrie was born in
Psychology interest
While Guthrie was going to graduate school he was the only student in a seminary taught by
His professional psychology career did not start in full until he met Stevenson Smith, who founded the psychology department at the University of Washington in 1917. Guthrie and Smith helped write Chapters in General Psychology in 1921.[6] This book and work with Smith, focused on Guthrie's continuing psychological works towards how exactly learning works and what affects a person's capability of learning. He and his wife, Helen MacDonald, traveled to France where they met Pierre Janet. Janet's writing had a great impact on Guthrie's thinking, so profound in fact that Guthrie and his wife translated Janet's Principles of Psychology together. Guthrie added to Janet's writings an objective theory of learning.[7]
One trial theory
Guthrie's theories went against those of
- The principle of association says that any stimulus that accompanies a behavior or immediately precedes it by less than half a second becomes a cue for that specific behavior.[10]
- The principle of postremity theorizes that a stimulus when followed by more than two responses only becomes associated with the response closest to the stimulus.[10]
- The principle of response probability states that the chance of a particular response occurring at a specified time relates to the size of the stimulus for that response present at the specified time. The more cues for a stimulus the higher the chance of a desired response.[10]
Punishment
Guthrie also had theories as to how punishment worked that were at odds with the likes of Thorndike and other learning theorists of his own time. Guthrie thought that punishment was only as effective as the amount of change in behavior the punishment caused.[11] Guthrie's theory required that presentation of punishment happen while the stimulus is still around. He did warn that if the punishment did not stop the undesirable response or if it was not presented in the presence of the stimulus that the punishment could actually strengthen the undesired response.
Breaking habits
Guthrie believed that dozens of tiny movements make up what most see as a single behavior; much like waving good-bye actually involves dozens of muscle movements. Guthrie viewed habits as a response connecting with a large number of stimuli, which causes the habit to happen more often to a wide variety of things. He postulated that there were three different ways to break a habit, the threshold method, the fatigue method, and the incompatible response method.
- The threshold method involves introducing stimuli that are associated with the habit response at such a weak level that it doesn't actually elicit the response. The strength of the stimuli is increased slowly until the stimuli can be presented at full strength without eliciting the habit response. Guthrie compared this method to "horse whispering."[11]
- The fatigue method is quite simple, you keep presenting the stimulus until the person with the habit no longer replies with their habitual response. Guthrie considered this method similar to "breaking the horse."[11]
- The incompatible response method pairs the stimuli that causes the habitual behavior with another stimulus that triggers a response that is opposite or incompatible to the habit that you want to get rid of.[11]
Historical relevance
According to his students, Guthrie's writings and theories were intentionally vague and "ambiguous" much to his insistence on his work not being biased in a similar fashion and due to this resulted in most of his theories not being tested while Guthrie was alive.[9] Thankfully, his peers and students turned his theories into more precise ideas that allowed experiments to test them. His theories on learning were wrong, but his ideas about behaviorism helped make the case that psychology as a whole had important applications to real-life issues. His real effect on the course of psychology, however, came from those he left behind. His student Voeks was the one who formalized Guthrie's theories into a more testable form and his colleague William Kaye Estes took Guthrie's ideas and created a statistical theory of learning that he is now famous for.
Guthrie on education
Edwin Ray Guthrie was interested in the application of psychology and his learning theories in education. In the preface of his book Educational Psychology (1950), he states, " … the ultimate test of a theory of learning is its influence on the all-round growth of young people when applied in the classroom."[12] He hypothesized that pairing a stimulus and response could result in learning after only one trial. Guthrie believed that learning takes place through association and conditioning, and one pairing is often enough to establish a connection, rather than repeated stimulus-response pairings.[12] These association and connectionist theories are the bases of Guthrie's contiguity theory of learning. The law of contiguity refers to associating, or learning, two stimuli or events that occur simultaneously. When the stimulus and response occur together, they are learned due to the connection of their contiguity.[13]
Guthrie acknowledged the use of reinforcement and rewards, but he did not deem them necessary for learning.[12] He believed that organisms played a large part in their learning when developing habits and skills due to "movement-produced stimuli."[14] Therefore, he asserts that the students do not learn from what the teacher does, but from what they do themselves. In other words, students do not learn something merely by hearing or reading it; rather, the information must elicit an "active response" in the learner.[12] He believed that the ideal school environment is one that permits "freedom of responsible action."[12] He advocated for an environment that does not repress individual differences but rather appreciates them and allows the students as much self-direction as possible.[12] Guthrie described that an effective teacher would be one that would modify and revise the content of their lessons because students are dynamic in their learning and are "constantly organizing and reorganizing experiences."[12] According to Visible Learning for Teachers (2012), which evaluates effective teaching strategies, Hattie makes a significant point to advocate for flexible, adaptable instruction that is modified by the students’ prior knowledge, experiences, and individual differences as well as their rates of learning.[15]
The applications of Guthrie's theories have carried on to present education practices. In Educational Psychology (1950), he asserted that effective study skills included a clear goal, mastery of fundamentals, knowledge of learning phenomena, concentration, and practice.[12] There is evidence that goal setting is indeed effective in learning and retaining material.[15] Similarly, Guthrie advocated for making clear objectives for student learning by connecting the target response to the educational stimulus.[16] Although he believed in one-trial learning, Guthrie valued practice in the classroom. The purpose of practice is to ensure that students continue to "relearn" the material because of the uniqueness of each learning experience.[16] He asserted that distributed, or spaced, practice is the most effective and efficient method for learning and retaining content.[12] Distributed practice has indeed been shown to be highly effective in improving student learning and is recommended for use in classrooms today.[17]
Bibliography
- Guthrie, E. R. (1938). The psychology of human conflict: the clash of motives within the individual. New York: Harper Brothers.
- Guthrie, E. R. (1946). Psychological Facts and Psychological Theory., Psychological Bulletin, 43, 1-20
- Guthrie, E. R. (1959). Association by contiguity. In Sigmund Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 2, pp. 158–195). New York: McGraw-Hill.
References
- ^ a b "Edwin R. Guthrie. Peterson, Heather 1999". Archived from the original on 2007-03-13. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
- ^ Guthrie E.R. 1935. The psychology of learning. New York: Harper & Row, p26.
- ^ Sheffield F.D. 1959. Edwin Ray Guthrie: 1886-1959. American Journal of Psychology, 642-650.
- ^ Mueller C.G. Jr & Schonfeld W.N. 1954. Edwin R. Guthrie. In W.E. Estes et al, Modern learning theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 345–379.
- ^ a b c d Guthrie, Edwin, Association by contiguity. In Sigmund Koch (ed), 1959. Psychology: a study of a science, 158-198.
- ^ a b Smith, S. & Guthrie, E. Exhibitionism, University of Washington, 1920, 205-211
- ^ Edwin Ray Guthrie, Encyclopedia of Psychology 2001
- ^ a b c Guthrie, E. R. (1946). Psychological Facts and Psychological Theory., "Psychological Bulletin" Vol. 43, 1-20
- ^ a b Cech, C. G. Chapter 5 - The Nature of Reinforcement & Its effects on Acquisition: Guthrie’s Contiguity Theory 1998
- ^ a b c d Voeks, V. W. Formalization and clarification of a learning of theory, Journal of Psychology 1950, Vol. 30, 341-362
- ^ a b c d Guthrie, E. R. Reward and Punishment, Psychological Review 1934, Vol. 41, 450-460
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Guthrie, E. R.; Powers, F. F. (1950). Educational Psychology. New York: The Ronald Press Company.
- ^ Mangal, S. K. (2002). Advanced Educational Psychology (Second ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
- ^ Prenzel-Guthrie, P. (1996). "Edwin Ray Guthrie: Pioneer Learning Theorist". In Kimble, G. A.; Boneau, C. A.; Wertheimer, M. (eds.). Portraits of pioneers in psychology: Volume II. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 137–150.
- ^ a b Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York, NY: Routledge.
- ^ a b Olson, M. H.; Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- S2CID 1621081.
Sources
- Cech, C. G. (1998). Chapter 5 - The Nature of Reinforcement & Its effects on Acquisition: Guthrie's Contiguity Theory. Retrieved October 12, 2006, from http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~cgc2646/LRN/Chap5.htm[permanent dead link]
- Clark, D.O. (2005). From Philosopher to Psychologist: The Early Career of Edwin Ray Guthrie, Jr. History of Psychology, 8, 235–254.
- Contiguity Theory. (2005). The Psychology of Learning. Retrieved November 23, 2009, from http://psychology.org/guthrie.html[permanent dead link]
- Encyclopedia of Psychology. (2001). Guthrie, Edwin Ray. Retrieved November 23, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is_0004/ai_2699000486/.
- Hilgard E.R. & Bower G.H. Theories of learning. 2nd ed, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Chapter 4: Guthrie's contiguous conditioning.
- Sheffield, D. D. (1959). Edwin Ray Guthrie: 1886–1959. American Journal of Psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 642–650).
- Smith, S., & Guthrie, E. (1920). Exhibitionism. University of Washington, 205–211.
- Theories of Learning in Educational Psychology. (2008). Edwin Guthrie and "One Trial Leaning". Retrieved November 23, 2009, from https://web.archive.org/web/20090626071206/http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/behaviorism/guthrie.html.
- Thorne, M. B., & Henley, T. (2005). Connections in the History and Systems of Psychology (3rd ed). Houghton Mifflin Company.