George Croghan
George Croghan | |
---|---|
Born | c. 1718 St. Peter's Church, Philadelphia[2] |
Other names | The Buck, Anagurunda, King of the Traders[3] |
Occupation(s) | Fur trader, Indian agent, Onondaga Council sachem[4] land speculator, judge |
Spouse(s) | unknown; Catharine (Takarihoga)[5] |
Children | Susannah, from first liaison; Catharine (Adonwentishon), 1759-1837[6] |
George Croghan (c. 1718 – August 31, 1782) was an Irish-born fur trader in the Ohio Country of North America (current United States) who became a key early figure in the region. In 1746 he was appointed to the Onondaga Council, the governing body of the Iroquois, and remained so until he was banished from the frontier in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War.[7][8] Emigrating from Ireland to Pennsylvania in 1741, he had become an important trader by going to the villages of Indigenous Peoples, learning their languages and customs, and working on the frontier where previously mostly French had been trading. During and after King George's War of the 1740s, he helped negotiate new treaties and alliances for the British with Native Americans.
Croghan was appointed in 1756 as Deputy Indian Agent with chief responsibility for the Ohio region tribes. He assisted
Ohio's recorded history begins with Croghan's actions in the mid-1740s as fur trader, Iroquois sachem, and go-between for Pennsylvania, according to historian Alfred A. Cave. Cave concludes that the treason charge that ended Croghan's career was trumped up by his enemies.[9] Western Pennsylvania became the focal point in August 1749 when Croghan purchased 200,000 acres from the Iroquois, exclusive of two square miles at the Forks of the Ohio for a British fort.[10] Croghan soon learned that his three deeds would be invalidated if part of Pennsylvania, sabotaged that colony's effort to erect the fort, and led the Ohio Confederation to permit Virginia's Ohio Company to build it and settle the region.[11] Late in 1753 Virginia sent George Washington to the Ohio Country, who would eventually end Croghan's influence there.
Braddock's Defeat in 1755 and French control of Ohio Country, which they called the Illinois Country, indicating the area of their greater settlement, found Croghan building forts on the Pennsylvania frontier. Following which he manned the farthest frontier post in present-day New York as Deputy Indian agent under Sir William Johnson, called the "Mohawk Baron" for his extensive landholdings and leadership with the Mohawk and other Iroquois. Croghan briefly lived until 1770 on a quarter of a million New York acres. He resigned as Indian agent in 1771 to establish Vandalia, a fourteenth British colony to include parts of present-day West Virginia, southwestern Pennsylvania, and eastern Kentucky, but continued to serve as a borderland negotiator for Johnson, who died a British loyalist in 1774.
While working to keep the Ohio Indians neutral during the Revolutionary War, Croghan served as Pittsburgh's president judge for Virginia and chairman of its Committee of Safety. General Edward Hand, the local military commander, banished Col. Croghan from the frontier in 1777 on suspicion of treason. Despite his acquittal in a November, 1778 trial, Croghan was not allowed to return to the frontier.[12] His death in 1782, shortly after the end of the Revolutionary War, received little if any notice. Although often quoted by historians, the story of Croghan's 30 years as the pivotal figure in Ohio Country history is only found in the handful of biographies.
Early life and career
Little is known of Croghan's early life, including the names of his parents.[13] He was born in Ireland around 1718. The best evidence for Croghan's age is found in the treasonous Filius Gallicae letters, written early in 1756 by an otherwise anonymous author. "France's friend" claimed to be nearly 38 years old, among other self-descriptions that pointed to Croghan, but a secret British investigation exposed the fraud.[14] Croghan testified to his Irish origins in meetings in London in the 1760s. Croghan is a corruption and Anglicization of an older native Irish surname Mac Conchruacha[15]
Apparently Croghan's father died young and his widowed mother married again, to Thomas Ward. Croghan emigrated as a young man from
Within a few years Croghan became one of Pennsylvania's leading
Croghan also learned Native American customs, rapidly adopting the practice of exchanging gifts when he met with the people. He established his first trading base and wintered in a mostly
Marriages and families
Croghan married in the 1740s and had a daughter, Susannah Croghan. He later married again, while serving as Deputy Indian agent to Sir
King George's War, 1744–1748
Britain's blockade of French ports made the few French trade goods reaching Ohio Country prohibitively expensive; this resulted in a bonanza for the Pennsylvania British traders that alarmed the French. They knew that Native American trade and diplomacy were closely linked, and Croghan's activities from his base on the Cuyahoga River threatened French influence among the regional natives. As Croghan expanded his trading network westward toward Detroit, then held by the French, they encouraged French-allied Native Americans to attack him.
The British trader quickly took advantage of wartime conditions, establishing new posts at the Wyandot village of Sandusky and the Miami village of Pickawillany, tribes that had previously traded with the French.
His partnership with Trent was temporarily suspended when the latter joined the military to serve in
In April 1745 the Seneca protected Croghan from capture, but elsewhere French-allied Natives robbed a canoe-load of Croghan's furs.[21] Croghan was adopted by the Seneca and in 1746, according to his testimony before the Lords of Trade in 1764, was one of their hereditary sachems among the 50 chiefs comprising the Six Nations' Onondaga Council. Already on it was William Johnson, the future British Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the Northern District, Croghan's superior. Their principal French competitor for influence among the Native Americans in the Ohio region was Philippe-Thomas Chabert de Joncaire, son of the French fur trader Louis-Thomas Chabert de Joncaire (1670–1740),[8] another Seneca appointee to the Onondaga Council two decades earlier. That these men were members of the tribes they represented cannot be overemphasized in understanding their roles in American history.
Early in 1747, Seneca and Wyandot warriors murdered five French traders at the Wyandot village of Sandusky. This was the start of a regional Indian revolt against the French fomented by Croghan.[22] The Wyandot chief Nicholas Orontony led it at first. He was followed by Memeskia (or "Old Briton" as Croghan named him),[23] known by the French as La Demoiselle, who was a Piankeshaw Miami chief.
Unsuccessful in driving out the French, the participating bands became more closely aligned with the British. Reports claimed that Croghan had encouraged the uprising so that the Natives would trade with him and not the French. Old Briton relocated to Pickawillany on the Great Miami River, where Croghan built a stockade and trading post.[24]
Aided by local Iroquois chiefs Tanacharison (Half King) and Scarouady sent to oversee the Mingo and dependent Ohio Country nations, Croghan organized the Ohio Confederation of the region's tribes in 1748; they lit a "council fire on the Ohio River, independent of the Six Nations."[25] Greenwood believes this was Croghan's initiative, as shown by earlier and subsequent events.[26]
At the same time Croghan brought the Miami into an alliance with Great Britain, formalized in a July, 1748 treaty at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Andrew Montour, a conference interpreter, became Croghan's closest associate until his death in 1772. The other interpreter, Conrad Weiser, had been appointed as British Indian agent for Pennsylvania.
Weiser held a conference in August 1748 at Logstown, on the Ohio River near its confluence in today's western Pennsylvania, to inform the recently allied tribes of the Ohio Confederation gathered at their capital that Britain had signed a peace treaty with France ending the war. As a result, the English had no more war supplies for them and he distributed gifts instead. Pennsylvania approved Weiser's recommendation that the colony appoint Croghan as its negotiator with the Ohio Country Indians.[27] His success in that role should surprise no one.
The French attacked pro-British tribes left hanging by the peace without arms and ammunition to defend themselves.
Virginia's Ohio Company, which acted on behalf of the Commonwealth, sent agents Col. Thomas Cresap and Hugh Parker into the region, who made overtures to the Miami at Pickawillany. In a November,1749 letter to Pennsylvania's governor, Croghan offered to oppose them.[30] Not long thereafter he learned that his 200,000 acres (810 km2) in Indian grants were against Pennsylvania statutes, as the colony tried to protect the natives, but were permitted in Virginia.[31] By 1750 he and Montour were aiding the Virginia Commonwealth, guiding its scout Christopher Gist on a tour of Ohio Indian villages.
Croghan had already informed Pennsylvania Governor Hamilton that the Ohio Confederation wanted a British fort at the Forks of the Ohio. During a Logstown conference at the end of May 1751, he formally recorded the request and sent Andrew Montour to the
Croghan protested and among other things had Montour retract his testimony before the Pennsylvania Assembly, but no one believed it. Evidence of the underhanded charade is found in the Native American conference held in June 1752 at Logstown (the
Early in the spring of 1753, Canada's Governor Duquesne "opened his campaign to drive the English out of the Ohio Valley."[33] That October during a conference held at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Scarouady officially appointed Croghan as the representative of the Ohio Confederation in communications to and from Pennsylvania, and authorized him to receive its gifts for the tribes. His biographer Wainwright says this suggests that he organized his own appointment.[34]
When the year ended with 21-year-old
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) in North America, or French and Indian War as this front was known in the colonies, unofficially began in 1754 with the Battle of Jumonville Glen and effectively ended in 1760 with the British capture of Montreal. French forces occupied the Ohio Country and expelled or arrested British fur traders.
By the end of May, Croghan and Montour were in
During the
In 1755, friendly Indians again sought refuge at Augwick. Croghan fortified it as
With Montour at his side and in command of 100 Indians on an overlooking hilltop, Croghan witnessed in July 1758 General
Forbes assigned Croghan and Montour to bring in the regional Delaware warriors for a peace treaty with the British.
During 1761 and 1762, Croghan negotiated preliminary treaties with thirteen western tribes on behalf of the British Crown, gaining their acceptance of its assumption of rule in areas ceded by the French. These treaties were formalized in the September 1761 conference at Detroit, which was presided over by Sir William Johnson.
Croghan countered Seneca efforts to enlist the western Indians in an anti-British alliance; as he had in 1748, he organized the western groups into a confederacy independent of the Six Nations.[44]
General Jeffery Amherst did not understand Native American culture, calling the practice of gift giving foolish, akin to bribery. He considered the cost of maintaining peace with the Indians exorbitant, and cut Indian Department expenses to the bone. By stopping gift giving, he insulted the Native Americans. (Croghan covered some expenses and wrote that he served "the King for nothing").[45] Amherst also severely limited the gunpowder and lead available to the Indians, thinking it would forestall future uprisings. But the friendly Native Americans needed these supplies to hunt and acquire game for survival, as well as to trade the skins and furs for necessities. Amherst ignored Croghan's intelligence that as a result, an Indian war was imminent.
The French had released all claims and trade relations to the British in the Treaty of Paris for all lands from the Allegheny to the Ohio River and Mississippi, most of which had already been sparsely settled by the British. After having achieved relatively amicable relations with the French, who had learned about their culture and with whom they had relations for a long time, they resented the patronizing and insulting treatment by Amherst and his officers. They complained he treated them like slaves and dogs. They joined Pontiac's War to expel the British from their territory. [citation needed]
Pontiac's War
When Indian attacks engulfed Ohio Country in 1763, Croghan was in Philadelphia advising Governor Hamilton on Indian affairs and selling real estate. He galloped to Lancaster where word reached him that his business partner Col. Clapham had been killed in the region's initial attack, their Sewickley Creek trading post burned along with Croghan Hall near Pittsburgh, and that Fort Pitt was under siege.[46]
General Amherst in New York ordered Croghan to Fort Pitt to investigate the causes of the uprising and Col. Bouquet to relieve it with a few hundred men. Croghan provided Bouquet with the latest intelligence from Carlisle. At Shippensburg he helped calm fearful residents by recruiting and arming 25 men to garrison Fort Lyttleton, abandoned in 1759. He also hired locals to carry ammunition and supplies from Fort Loudon to Bedford. He reached Bedford on June 12 and, believing further travel west too dangerous, he fed starving families and bolstered the garrison of seven soldiers under Captain Lewis Ourry. A few weeks later Indians attacked fifteen men mowing Croghan's fields within a mile of the fort, scalping two. Croghan refused Bouquet's order to march with his column when it left Bedford on July 27. Instead on August 2 he set out for Philadelphia to pursue private interests.[47]
Denied leave by General Amherst to travel to London, Croghan resigned as Deputy Indian agent, angering Amherst. The general sailed to London on his own business. Croghan, accompanied by two officers recently besieged in Ft. Detroit and recalled to testify about the Indian uprising, set sail on the Britannia. The ship wrecked off the Normandy coast in January 1764.[48] He survived, visiting Normandy historical sites on his journey to Le Havre, where he crossed the Channel to London.
While in London, Croghan was described as "the personification of wealth and power."
Upon Croghan's return, Sir William Johnson ordered him to accompany Col. Bouquet's expedition against the Ohio tribes, but furnishing newly purchased Monckton Hall near Philadelphia was a higher priority. He assigned the negotiations to his assistant,
From 1764 onward, despite continual provocations, the tribes were kept at peace on the frontier, largely due to the herculean efforts of Croghan. The exceptions were isolated incidents and Dunmore's War in 1774 on the Shawnee, when the former Indian agent worked to keep the Delaware and other Indian nations neutral.
Seen as a 1765 prelude to the Revolutionary War, Croghan's first shipment of Indian presents and trade goods to Pittsburgh provoked armed rebellion by frontiersmen led by
Despite Black Boy opposition, Croghan accumulated enough goods to open trade with the Ohio Indians in Pittsburgh; he set off for
Croghan led a group of speculators, including Benjamin Franklin and his son William Franklin, in pursuing land in the Ohio Country, the Illinois Country, and New York. On September 6, 1765, Croghan was awarded a grant of 10,000 acres (40 km2).
By Spring 1766 Croghan resumed his mission to the Illinois tribes on the Mississippi. Seventeen bateaux left Pittsburgh on June 18, one carrying Croghan and his party, another carrying Captain Harry Gordon and Ensign
Later life
His ship reached New York on January 10, 1767, and two days later Croghan joined
A hard year for Croghan's Indian diplomacy followed: the Black Boys' pledged in March to kill Croghan on his way to an Indian conference in Pittsburgh,
As noted above, before completion of the Fort Stanwix Treaty in November 1768, the Six Nations sold Croghan 127,000 acres (510 km2) in New York bordering Lake Otsego, plus numerous tracts for his friends. At the large conference, attended by more than 3100 Iroquois, the Six Nations demanded (on his part) that the Crown recognize these and other pre-treaty sales. They also asked that a grant by them of 2,500,000 acres (10,000 km2) on the Ohio to Trent and his associates be made part of the treaty. Third, they wanted to ensure that should Pennsylvania seize the 200,000 acres (810 km2) which the Indians had granted to Croghan at the Forks of the Ohio, they requested that the Crown grant Croghan as much land elsewhere. Sir William Johnson was censured by the Crown for aiding Croghan's private land dealings, and the government refused to ratify these private requests.[65]
Facing bankruptcy, Croghan "drew bills payable on Samuel Wharton in London" for thousands of pounds in order to patent his New York land.[66] Crippled with gout and hounded by creditors, Croghan sought refuge in Croghan Forest, which totaled more than 250,000 acres (1,000 km2). Its remote setting did not protect him when the Wharton bills were returned for nonpayment in February 1770.[67]
Croghan Hall gave the ailing Croghan a refuge from lawsuits and debtors' prison, but he could do little more than watch as settlers poured into the Ohio Country on land he considered to be his. Pennsylvania appointed officials for newly established Bedford County in 1771.[68]
Among those buying land from Croghan's 1749 Indian grant was
Croghan's luck appeared to change when the Crown agreed to a new inland colony, Vandalia, appointing him as Indian agent and its largest land owner. Crown agents were restricted from forming such ventures, however, so Croghan resigned from the Indian Department on November 2, 1771.[69] Alexander McKee took his place as deputy agent, with Croghan "on call when Indian affairs were critical."[70] He took his cousin Thomas Smallman into a fur trading partnership and Croghan "made a major effort to liquidate his debts."[70]
Although failing to sell any of his New York acres, Barnard and Michael Gratz remained Croghan's agents, creditors, primary suppliers and friends. He felt great sorrow at the loss of his friend Andrew Montour, murdered in January 1772. The British abandoned Fort Pitt that fall, and Croghan had McKee tell the Indians that it was done to please them. 1772 ended with "the news that the Privy Council had overruled Lord Hillsborough and approved Vandalia."[71]
A year passed with Vandalia still in limbo. Croghan borrowed money and pawned his plate (silver), spending £1,365 for provisions and gifts for 400 Indians who attended his November conference regarding the proposed colony. "Convinced that the powerful Vandalia project had fallen through, Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, decided to make good his colony's western claims. Presumably, when Dunmore visited Pittsburgh in the summer of 1773, he met Croghan, for he agreed to recognize the validity of Croghan's Indian grant."[72] Dunmore appointed an associate and nephew of Croghan as his western agent. Dr. John Connolly, fully supported by Croghan, "claimed Pittsburgh for Virginia in January, 1774, and called up the militia. The first men to appear at the parade ground for the initial muster came from Croghan Hall."[73] Virginia's claim was opposed by Pennsylvania's General Arthur St. Clair, the colony's chief official west of the Alleghenies.[74]
Dunmore's War
That August deputies of the Six Nation brought the news of Sir William Johnson's death. He had died in July, the day before a sheriff's sale put over 50,000 acres (200 km2) of Croghan's New York land on the auction block. Bids totaled £4,840 despite the pall Johnson's death cast over the proceedings. Many of the bids were never paid and the sheriff absconded with most of the money collected, leaving only £900 for Croghan. He raised $6,000 in Virginia to buy directly from the Iroquois 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km2) on the eastern bank of the Allegheny River. Samuel Wharton sent encouraging news about Vandalia, including the arrival of a large shipment of goods for gifts to the Indians and land payments, temporarily stored at Georgetown because of Dunmore's War.[76]
Governor Dunmore reached Pittsburgh in September, pausing in his campaign against the Shawnee to grill Croghan concerning "Connolly's accusations about inciting the Shawnees to attack Virginia and siding with Pennsylvania against Virginia. Croghan easily disproved the charges and was reinstated in Dunmore's good graces."[77] After bringing his war to a successful close that fall, Dunmore left 75 militia under Connolly to garrison Fort Pitt, renamed Fort Dunmore. The Virginia governor also adjourned the Augusta county court from Staunton to Pittsburgh, where he appointed Croghan to serve as president judge.
American Revolution
Croghan chaired Pittsburgh's
On July 10, 1775, Croghan purchased 6,000,000 acres (24,000 km2) from the Six Nations between the Allegheny and Beaver rivers. Two days later, Congress established an Indian Department and appointed trader Richard Butler as its Pittsburgh agent. When Butler retired in April 1776, Croghan lobbied for his position. But, George Morgan was chosen as Indian agent and, still resentful for the failed Illinois trading venture a decade earlier, "had absolutely no use for Croghan."[79]
During the summer of 1777, Croghan visited Williamsburg, Virginia, at the expense of the Gratz brothers to obtain a clear title to land he had sold them. After conferring with Governor Patrick Henry about frontier defenses, he returned to Pittsburgh with dispatches for General Edward Hand, who greeted him with suspicion. What was believed to be a Loyalist conspiracy had been uncovered. Colonel George Morgan, the Indian agent, Alexander McKee; Simon Girty, and others were under arrest. General Hand examined Thomas Smallman's papers and although there was nothing to indicate Croghan was disloyal, Hand ordered him to Philadelphia.
Two weeks after he reached the city, it was captured by the British. Croghan, too ill with gout to escape, was hauled before
General Hand refused to let him return to Croghan Hall in western Pennsylvania, and Croghan spent the next two winters in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.[81] In an effort to pay off debts, Croghan mortgaged Croghan Hall to Joseph Simon. He deeded 74,000 acres (300 km2) of his Indian grant to the Gratzes, who paid his bills and financed another trip to Williamsburg to seek to have his Indian titles recognized by the state of Virginia, without success. Bedridden with gout upon his return, Croghan wrote few letters to family and friends. In May 1780, he moved to Philadelphia, where he learned his western properties were within the boundaries of the new state of Pennsylvania.[82]
Croghan died at his home in Passyunk Township, on August 31, 1782. By then he was such an obscure figure that his death was not reported in newspapers. He was buried in the churchyard of St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia. The marker on his grave was deteriorated by the elements, and the location was unmarked for many years.[83]
Croghan's estate
While the total value of his personal estate was valued at only £50 13s.6d, his extensive land holdings were "conservatively estimated at £140,000." Except for some specific bequests, his June 12, 1782, will left his entire estate to his daughter Susannah. Susannah Croghan Prevost died in 1790, survived by six of her twelve children.[84] For decades, they pursued their claims to Croghan's often clouded deeds in numerous lawsuits. "For some years, the hopeless involvements of his estate kept courtrooms abuzz, and, when that ceased and his contemporaries died off, the man's name and fame faded away into the obscurity from which he had emerged."[85]
Since the late 20th century, historians have re-evaluated Croghan's role and begun to assert his importance in the Ohio Country. He was a flamboyant character like William Johnson, brash and grasping, but also with a talent for diplomacy and relations with the Native Americans.
History continues to be made by Croghan descendants. To this day the female line of Croghan's Mohawk daughter Catherine are inheritors of her position and power in the Turtle Clan. "Catharine Adonwentishon was head of the Turtle clan, the first in rank in the Mohawk Nation. Her birthright was to name the Tekarihoga, the principal sachem of the Mohawk nation."[80]
Speculation in western New York lands and clouded titles resulted in many unscrupulous transactions. In 1786 William Cooper and his partner Andrew Craig "by questionable methods . . . purchased the Otsego lands [40,000 of Croghan's acres] for only £2,700."[86] Cooper laid out the town of Cooperstown, New York, and built his mansion, Otsego Hall, on the former site of Croghan's residence. William Franklin and the Prevost heirs watched bitterly as the property increased in value twentyfold. "Andrew Prevost, Jr., wrote Franklin on December 12, 1812: 'We have lost an immense property from the infamous advantage taken by Cooper and others without your knowledge by a forced Sale under your Title.'"[87] William Cooper's son, the author James Fenimore Cooper, presented his family's side of the dispute in his Chronicles of Cooperstown (1838).[87]
Pronunciation of name
There has been disagreement as to how to pronounce Croghan's name. The governor of Canada, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, in a letter to the Minister of France on August 8, 1756, referred to “George Craon’s fort”,[88] which appears to be a phonetic spelling. Although biographer Robert. G. Crist concludes that, given the Gaelic origins of the surname, the pronunciation was “Crone," his evidence is less than conclusive: a financial account that one of Croghan's clerks labeled as "Crohan and Trent;" and "a Frenchman who recorded his name as "Croan," apparently the way it sounded. Descendants have used the hard "g" pronunciation favored by Croghan scholar Margaret Pearson Bothwell, but Crist dismisses them and "the practice in Ireland today," where the name is pronounced "CROG-han." "CRO-ghan" seems to be the standard English pronunciation. Crist cites Nicholas B. Wainwright's "Crowan" as an intermediate step between "something like 'Crohan,' and in further simplification, 'Crone.'"[89] A study of Crogan's dialect by Michael Montgomery, a linguist specializing in Irish, written more than thirty years after Crist, does not find the name pronunciation dispute worth mentioning.
Legacy and honors
- In 2008, the Sons of the American Revolution added a new marker to Croghan's grave.
- In 2012 a historical marker commemorating Croghan was dedicated at the veteran's memorial near Rostraver Township's borough building in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania.[90]
- In 2020, a historical marker, commemorating Croghan was placed at the site of his original trading post, in Mechanicsburg (Cumberland County), Pennsylvania.
References
- ^ Frederic, 73
- ^ Wainwright, 310.
- ^ Wainwright, 49, 310, 29.
- ^ Wainwright, 13.
- ^ Wainwright, 34, 138.
- ^ a b Wainwright, 34, 264.
- ^ Greenwood, 46.
- ^ a b Wainwright, 13
- ^ Cave, 12
- ^ Wainwright, 41
- ^ Greenwood, 5-7
- ^ Wainwright, 307
- ^ Wainwright, 3.
- ^ Wainwright, 107.
- ^ "Irish names". The Irish Times.
- ^ Wainwright, 260
- ^ Wainwright, 207.
- ISBN 0874367964.
- ^ American National Biography Online, February 2000.
- ^ Wainwright, 8–13.
- ^ Wainwright, 8.
- ^ Wainwright, 3
- ^ Anderson, 28-29
- ^ Wainwright, 14–15.
- ^ Aquila,194.
- ^ Greenwood, 3.
- ^ Wainwright, 18–21
- ^ Wainwright, 27
- ^ Wainwright, 28
- ^ Wainwright, 30
- ^ Anderson, 30
- ^ Wainwright, 41-44
- ^ Wainwright, 49-50
- ^ Wainwright, 55
- ^ Wainwright, 65
- ^ Wainwright, 75-78
- ^ Wainwright, 93
- ^ Flexner, 129-130
- ^ Volwiler, 800
- ^ Wainwright, 145
- ^ Wainwright, 151
- ^ Wainwright, 153
- ^ Wainwright, 165
- ^ Wainwright, 182
- ^ Wainwright, 195
- ^ Wainwright, 196-198
- ^ Wainwright, 198-200
- ^ Wainwright, 204
- ^ Wainwright, 206
- ^ Wainwright, 207-208
- ^ Wainwright, 210-211
- ^ Wainwright, 120
- ^ Volwiler, 177
- ^ Volwiler, 179
- ^ George Croghan's Journal, 18-19
- ^ Volwiler, 185-186
- ^ Volwiler, 188
- ^ Volwiler, 195
- ^ a b Volwiler, 197
- ^ Wainwright, 239
- ^ Wainwright, 244
- ^ Wainwright, 251
- ^ Wainwright, 253
- ^ Wainwright, 256
- ^ Wainwright, 257
- ^ Wainwright, 267
- ^ Wainwright, 271
- ^ Wainwright, 277
- ^ Wainwright, 281
- ^ a b Wainwright, 282
- ^ Wainwright, 283-284
- ^ Wainwright, 286
- ^ Wainwright, 287
- ^ Wainwright, 283
- ^ Wainwright, 189-191
- ^ Wainwright, 292-293
- ^ Wainwright, 294
- ^ Wainwright, 294-295
- ^ Wainwright, 296-299
- ^ Wainwright, 300-301
- ^ a b Wainwright, 302-303
- ^ Wainwright, 305-305
- ^ Wainwright, 310; Volwiler, 334. Volwiler, writing in 1926, did not know where Croghan was buried.
- ^ Wainwright, 307-307
- ^ Wainwright, 310
- ^ Volwiler, 329-330
- ^ a b Volwiler, 331
- ^ Stevens and Kent, 94
- ^ Crist, 3
- ^ James Greenwood, Ohio Country website, "Critical Comments" section
Sources
- Anderson, Fred. The Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Face of Empire in British America, 1754-1766, New York: Knopf, 2000. ISBN 978-0-375-40642-3
- Aquila, Richard. The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701-1754, Lincoln, NE: U. of Nebraska Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-8032-5932-4
- Bothwell, Margaret Pearson. "The Astonishing Croghans," Western Pennsylvania History Magazine, 48(2), April 1965: 119–144.
- Campbell, William J. "An Adverse Patron: Land, Trade, and George Croghan," Pennsylvania History, 76(2), 2009: 117–140.
- Campbell, William J. Speculators in Empire: Iroquoia and the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, University of Oklahoma Press, 2012
- Cave, Alfred A. "George Croghan and the Emergence of British Influence on the Ohio Frontier", in Builders of Ohio, a Biographical History. edited by Warren R. Van Tine and Michael Dale Pierce; Athens, OH: Ohio State University Press, 2002.
- Crist, Robert Grant. George Croghan of Pennsboro. Harrisburg, PA: Dauphin Deposit Trust Co., 1965.
- Flexner, James Thomas. George Washington; The Forge of Experience, 1732-1775. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1965.
- Frederic, Harold & William C. Frederick III. The Westsylvania Pioneers, 1774-1776, Butler, PA: H.R. Frederic, 2001. ISBN 978-0-9703825-3-5
- Greenwood, Jim. "George Croghan; A Reappraisal." Washington, PA: Monongahela Press, 2009. ohiocountry.us.
- Hanna, Charles A. "George Croghan: The King of the Traders," The Wilderness Trail, Vol. Two, originally published in 1911. Lewisburg, PA: Wennawoods, 1995.
- Merrell, James H. Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier. New York: Norton, 1999. ISBN 0-393-04676-1.
- Montgomery, Michael. "A Tale of Two Georges," in Focus on Ireland, Jeffrey Kallen, ed. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamin Pub. Co., 1997.
- Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors, How Indian War Transformed Early America.New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009. ISBN 978-0-393-33490-6
- Sivertsen, Barbara. "Turtles, Wolves, and Bears - a Mohawk Family History," Westminster, MD: Heritage Books, 2006.
- Stevens, Sylvester and Donald Kent, eds. Wilderness Chronicles of Northwestern Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Historical Commission, 1941.
- Taylor, Alan. The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution, New York: OCLC 58043162
- Volwiler, Albert T. George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 1741–1782. Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1926.
- Wainwright, Nicholas B. George Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959.
External links
- Full text of "A selection of George Croghan's letters and journals relating to tours into the western country--November 16, 1750-November, 1765 ..", Bancroft Library, Internet Archive
- A[lbert] T. Volwiler, "George Croghan and the Development of Central New York, 1763-1800", The Quarterly Journal of the New York State Historical Association [now New York History], Vol. IV, No. 1 (January, 1923), pp. 21–40, on-line text, hosted by James Fenimore Cooper Society, 2002, Oneonta University.
- Jim Greenwood, "George Croghan: A Reappraisal", Ohio Country website, 2009 (54 pages)
- "George Croghan", Find-a-Grave
- Guide to the Reuben T. Durrett Collection of William and George Croghan Papers circa 1823-1890 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center