Gladius
Part of a series on the |
Military of ancient Rome |
---|
Ancient Rome portal |
Gladius | |
---|---|
Carthaginian Spain as the Celtiberian sword, adopted and modified by Rome | |
Service history | |
In service | 3rd century BC – 3rd century AD |
Used by |
|
Specifications | |
Mass | 0.7–1 kg (1.5–2.2 lb) |
Length | 60–85 cm (24–33 in) |
Blade length | 45–68 cm (18–27 in) |
Width | 5–7 cm (2.0–2.8 in) |
Blade type | Iron of varying degrees of carbon content, pointed, double-edged |
Hilt type | Wood, bronze or ivory |
Gladius (Classical Latin: [ˈɡɫadiʊs]) is a Latin word properly referring to the type of sword that was used by ancient Roman foot soldiers starting from the 3rd century BC and until the 3rd century AD. Linguistically, within Latin, the word also came to mean "sword", regardless of the type used.
Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those of the Greeks, called xiphe (pl., sg.: xiphos). From the 3rd century BC, however, the Romans adopted a weapon based on the sword of the Celtiberians of Hispania in service to Carthage during the Punic Wars, known in Latin as the gladius hispaniensis, meaning "Hispanic-type sword". The Romans improved the weapon, modified it depending on how their battle units waged war, and created over time new types of "gladii" such as the Mainz gladius and the Pompeii gladius. Finally, in the third century AD the heavy Roman infantry replaced the gladius with the spatha (already common among Roman cavalrymen),[1] relegating the gladius as a weapon for light Roman infantry.
A fully equipped Roman legionary after the consulships of Gaius Marius was armed with a sword (gladius), a shield (scutum), one or two javelins (pila), often a dagger (pugio), and perhaps, in the later empire period, darts (plumbatae). Conventionally, soldiers threw pila to disable the enemy's shields and disrupt enemy formations before engaging in close combat, for which they drew the gladius. A soldier generally led with the shield and thrust with the sword.[2]
Etymology
Gladius is a
Gladius is generally believed to be a
Modern English words derived from gladius include gladiator ("swordsman") and gladiolus ("little sword", from the diminutive form of gladius), a flowering plant with sword-shaped leaves.
Predecessors and origins
According to
In 70 BC, both
Arguments for the Celtiberian source of the weapon have been reinforced in recent decades by discovery of early Roman gladii that seem to highlight that they were copies of Celtiberian models. The weapon developed in Iberia after La Tène I models, which were adapted to traditional Celtiberian techniques during the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC.[14] These weapons are quite original in their design, so that they cannot be confused with Gallic types. As for the origin of the word gladius, one theory proposes the borrowing of the word from *kladi- during the Gallic wars, relying on the principle that K often became G in Latin. Ennius attests the word gladius may have replaced ensis, which until then was used mainly by poets.[15]
Manufacturing
Technique
By the time of the Roman Republic, which flourished during the Iron Age, steel and the steel-making process was known to the classical world. Pure iron is relatively soft, but pure iron is never found in nature. Natural iron ore contains various impurities in solid solution, which harden the reduced metal by producing irregular-shaped metallic crystals. The gladius was generally made out of steel.
In Roman times, workers reduced ore in a bloomery furnace. The resulting pieces were called blooms,[16] which they further worked to remove slag inclusions from the porous surface.
A recent metallurgical study of two Etrurian swords, one in the form of a Greek kopis from 7th century BC Vetulonia, the other in the form of a gladius Hispaniensis from 4th century BC Clusium (Chiusi), gives insight concerning the manufacture of Roman swords.[17] The Chiusi sword comes from Romanized etruria; thus, regardless of the names of the forms (which the authors do not identify), the authors believe the process was continuous from the Etruscans to the Romans.
The Vetulonian sword was crafted by the
The Chiusian sword was created from a single bloom by forging from a temperature of 1,237 °C (2,259 °F). The carbon content increased from 0.05–0.08% at the back side of the sword to 0.35–0.4% on the blade, from which the authors deduce that some form of
Romans continued to forge swords, both as composites and from single pieces. Inclusions of sand and rust weakened the two swords in the study, and no doubt limited the strength of swords during the Roman period.
Production
The craftsmen with the strategic task of making the gladii were called gladiarii. They were part of the Roman legions as fabri, enjoying the status of immunes. There were also public workshops, fabricae, dedicated to the making of the gladii. Epigraphic attestations of the gladiarii have been found in Italy, especially in areas of ancient metallurgic tradition such as Capua and Aquileia.[18]
Description
The word gladius acquired a general meaning as any type of sword. This use appears as early as the 1st century AD in the Biography of Alexander the Great by Quintus Curtius Rufus.[19] The republican authors, however, appear to mean a specific type of sword, which is now known from archaeology to have had variants.
Gladii were two-edged for cutting and had a tapered point for stabbing during thrusting. A solid grip was provided by a knobbed hilt added on, possibly with ridges for the fingers. Blade strength was achieved by welding together strips, in which case the sword had a channel down the center, or by fashioning a single piece of high-carbon steel, rhomboidal in cross-section. The owner's name was often engraved or punched on the blade.
The hilt of a Roman sword was the capulus. It was often ornate, especially the sword-hilts of officers and dignitaries.
Stabbing was a very efficient technique, as stabbing wounds, especially in the abdominal area, were almost always deadly.
Though the primary infantry attack was thrusting at stomach height, they were trained to take any advantage, such as slashing at kneecaps beneath the shield wall.
The gladius was sheathed in a scabbard mounted on a belt or shoulder strap. Some say the soldier reached across his body to draw it, and others claim that the position of the shield made this method of drawing impossible. A centurion wore it on the opposite side as a mark of distinction.[22]
Towards the end of the 2nd century AD and during the 3rd century the spatha gradually took the place of the gladius in the Roman legions.
Types
Several different designs were used; among collectors and historical reenactors, the three primary kinds are known as the Mainz gladius, the Fulham gladius, and the Pompeii gladius (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, the gladius Hispaniensis.
The differences between these varieties are subtle. The original Hispanic sword, which was used during the republic, had a slight "wasp-waist" or "leaf-blade" curvature. The Mainz variety came into use on the frontier in the early empire. It kept the curvature, but shortened and widened the blade and made the point triangular. At home, the less battle-effective Pompeii version came into use. It eliminated the curvature, lengthened the blade, and diminished the point. The Fulham was a compromise, with straight edges and a long point.[23]
Gladius Hispaniensis
The gladius Hispaniensis was a Roman sword used from around 216 BC until 20 BC. Its blade had a length of 60–68 cm (24–27 in), and the sword was 75–85 cm (30–33 in) long. The width of the sword was 5 cm (2.0 in). It was the largest and heaviest of the gladii, weighing 1 kg (2.2 lb) kg or 900 g (2.0 lb). This gladius was also the earliest and longest blade. It had a pronounced leaf-shape.
Mainz Gladius
The Mainz Gladius is made of heavily corroded iron and a sheath made of tinned and gilded bronze. The blade was 50–55 cm (20–22 in) long and 7 cm (2.8 in) in width. The sword was 65–70 cm (26–28 in) long. The sword weighed 800 g (1.8 lb). The point of the sword was more triangular than the Gladius Hispaniensis. The Mainz Gladius still had wasp-waisted curves. The decoration on the scabbard illustrates the ceding of military victory to Augustus by Tiberius after a successful Alpine campaign. Augustus is semi-nude, and sits in the pose of Jupiter, flanked by the Roman gods of Victory and Mars Ultor, while Tiberius, in military dress, presents Augustus with a statuette of Victory.
Fulham gladius
The Fulham gladius or Mainz-Fulham gladius was a Roman sword that was used after Aulus Plautius' invasion of Britain in 43 AD.[24] The Romans used it until the end of the 1st century. The Fulham gladius has a triangular tip. The length of the blade is 50–55 cm (20–22 in). The length of the sword is 65–70 cm (26–28 in). The width of the blade is 6 cm (2.4 in). The swords weighs 700 g (1.5 lb) (wooden hilt).[25][26] A full size replica can be seen at Fulham Palace, Fulham.
Pompeii gladius
The Pompeii gladius was named by modern historians after the Roman town of Pompeii. This type of gladius was by far the most popular one. Four examples of the sword type were found in Pompeii, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. This is the shortest of the gladii. It is often confused with the spatha, which was a longer, slashing weapon used initially by mounted auxilians. Over the years, the Pompeii got longer, and these later versions are called semi-spathes. The length of the blade was 45–50 cm (18–20 in). The length of the sword is 60–65 cm (24–26 in). The width of the blade is 5 cm (2.0 in). The sword weighs 700 g (1.5 lb) (wooden hilt).
See also
- Iron Age sword
- Model 1816 French artillery short sword
- Model 1832 foot artillery sword
- Qama
- Roman military personal equipment
Notes
- ISBN 978-1-84603-336-0.
- ^ Vegetius De Re Militari 2.15
- ^ McCone, Kim, "Greek Κελτός and Γαλάτης, Latin Gallus 'Gaul', in: Die Sprache 46, 2006, p. 106
- ^ Schrijver, Peter, The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Latin, Rodopi, 1991, p. 174.
- ^ Delamarre, Xavier, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Errance, 2003 (2nd ed.), p. 118.
- ^ Schmidt, Karl Horst, 'Keltisches Wortgut im Lateinischen', in: Glotta 44 (1967), p. 159.
- ^ Koch, Celtic Culture, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. 215
- ^ a b c d e Quesada Sanz, F. "¿Qué hay en un nombre? La cuestión del gladius hispaniensis" (PDF). Retrieved August 7, 2019.
- ^ a b c d Quesada Sanz, F. "Gladius hispaniensis: an archaeological view from Iberia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2018. Retrieved August 10, 2018.
- ISBN 978-14-728158-6-6.
- ISBN 978-08-532391-0-9.
- ^ Livy's term (link). Most authors use the term gladius Hispaniensis but a few use Livy's term, Hispanus. Both are adjectives of the same meaning, that is, they refer to Hispania, or the Iberian Peninsula.
- ^ Livius, Titus. "The History of Rome, Vol. II". 7.10. Archived from the original on August 30, 2002. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
- ^ [1] Archived October 2, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ This theory is stated in Note 80, Page 191, of faculty dissertation RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS IN OR FROM THE NETHERLANDS Archived 2006-07-28 at the Wayback Machine by Tineke Looijenga, University of Groningen.
- ^ blooms
- ^ .
- ^ The Road of Amber, Maurizio Buora, A.G.F., University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1996
- ^ "Copidas vocabant gladios leviter curvatos, falcibus similes: "They called their lightly curved, sickle-like swords (gladius) 'copides'."
- ^ Vegetius, De Re Militari, Book I Archived July 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine: "a stab, though it penetrates but two inches, is generally fatal."
- ^ Histories, Book 31, Chapter 34.
- ^ See under gladius Archived October 4, 2006, at the Wayback Machine in Seyffert, Dictionary of Classical Antiquities.
- ^ "Museo del Arma Blanca". Archived from the original on October 25, 2006. Retrieved December 15, 2006.
- ISBN 978-1-78159-128-4.
- ^ History of the Roman Legions.
- ISBN 978-938-601-980-6.
^ This is only true for the nominative case; For more information, see the Latin declension page.
References
- Significant Contributions in the Study of European Arms and Armor, bibliography by the Arms and Armor Society of America.
- Armamentarium: subject bibliographies: swords
- John William Humphrey, John Peter Oleson, Andrew Neil Sherwood, Greek and Roman Technology: a sourcebook
- Livius, Titus (known as ISBN 978-0-14-044388-2.
External links
The articles in the links below often differ both in theory and in detail. They should not necessarily be understood as fully professional articles but should be appreciated for their presentational value.
Pictures of ancient swords
- Roman Military Equipment at the Roman Numismatic Gallery (romancoins.info)
Reenactments, reconstructions, experimental archaeology
- Legio IX Hispana: photos of historical reconstructionists drawing and holding gladii.
- "Legio XX Gladius".
- "Legio XXIV Gladiator page".
- "The Roman Legionary and His Equipment in The First Century AD: An Assessment of the findings of The Ermine Street Guard". Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2007-08-24.
Articles on the history or manufacture of the sword
- Ross Cowan, Gladius Gallicus[permanent dead link], an introduction to the Gallic-type swords used by the Romans prior to the adoption of the gladius Hispaniensis
- Iron of the Empire: The History and Development of the Roman Gladius (myArmoury.com article)
- Janet Lang, Study of the Metallography of Some Roman Swords
- Niko Silvester, From Rapier to Langsax: Sword Structure in the British Isles in the Bronze and Iron Ages
- Richard F. Burton, The Sword Amongst the Barbarians (Early Roman Empire).
- Taylor, Michael J. "Panoply and Identity during the Roman Republic." Papers of the British School at Rome 88 (2020), 31-65. [2]