Hetch Hetchy
Hetch Hetchy Valley | |
---|---|
Floor elevation | 3,783 ft (1,153 m)[1] |
Length | 3 mi (4.8 km) |
Width | 0.5 mi (0.80 km) |
Area | 1,200 acres (490 ha) |
Depth | 1,800 ft (550 m) |
Geology | |
Type | Glacial |
Age | 10,000–15,000 years |
Geography | |
Location | Yosemite National Park, California, United States |
Coordinates | 37°56′53″N 119°47′17″W / 37.94806°N 119.78806°W [1] |
River | Tuolumne River |
Hetch Hetchy is a valley, a reservoir, and a water system in California in the United States. The glacial Hetch Hetchy Valley lies in the northwestern part of Yosemite National Park and is drained by the Tuolumne River. For thousands of years before the arrival of settlers from the United States in the 1850s, the valley was inhabited by Native Americans who practiced subsistence hunting-gathering. During the late 19th century, the valley was renowned for its natural beauty – often compared to that of Yosemite Valley – but also targeted for the development of water supply for irrigation and municipal interests. The controversy over damming Hetch Hetchy became mired in the political issues of the day. The law authorizing the dam passed Congress on December 7, 1913. In 1923, the O'Shaughnessy Dam was completed on the Tuolumne River, flooding the entire valley under the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir.[2] The dam and reservoir are the centerpiece of the Hetch Hetchy Project, which in 1934 began to deliver water 167 miles (269 km) west to San Francisco and its client municipalities in the greater San Francisco Bay Area.
Geography
Before damming, the high granite formations produced a valley with an average depth of 1,800 ft (550 m) and a maximum depth of over 3,000 ft (910 m); the length of the valley was 3 mi (4.8 km) with a width ranging from 1⁄8 to 1⁄2 mile (660 to 2,640 ft; 200 to 800 m). The valley floor consisted of roughly 1,200 acres (490 ha) of meadows fringed by pine forest, through which meandered the Tuolumne River and numerous tributary streams.[3] Kolana Rock, at 5,772 ft (1,759 m), is a massive rock spire on the south side of the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Hetch Hetchy Dome, at 6,197 ft (1,889 m), lies directly north of it. The locations of these two formations roughly correspond with those of Cathedral Rocks and El Capitan seen from Tunnel View in Yosemite Valley.[4] A broad, low rocky outcrop situated between Kolana Rock and Hetch Hetchy Dome divided the former meadow in two distinct sections.[5]
The valley is fed by the Tuolumne River, Falls Creek, Tiltill Creek, Rancheria Creek, and numerous smaller streams which collectively drain a watershed of 459 sq mi (1,190 km2). In its natural state, the valley floor was marshy and often flooded in the spring when snow melt in the high Sierra cascaded down the Tuolumne River and backed up behind the narrow gorge which is now spanned by O'Shaughnessy Dam. The entire valley is now flooded under an average 300 ft (91 m) of water behind the dam, although it occasionally reemerges in droughts, as it did in 1955, 1977, and 1991.[6][7]
Upstream from the valley lies the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne, while the smaller Poopenaut Valley is directly downstream from O'Shaughnessy Dam. The Hetch Hetchy Road drops into the valley at the dam, but all points east of there are roadless, and accessible only to hikers and equestrians. The O'Shaughnessy Dam is near Yosemite's western boundary, but the long, narrow, fingerlike reservoir stretches eastward for about 8 miles (13 km).[2]
Wapama Falls, at 1,080 ft (330 m), and Tueeulala Falls, at 840 ft (260 m) – both among the tallest waterfalls in North America – are both located in Hetch Hetchy Valley.[8] Rancheria Falls is located farther southeast, on Rancheria Creek.[9] Formerly, a "small but noisy"[10] waterfall and natural pool existed on the Tuolumne River marked the upper entrance to Hetch Hetchy Valley,[11] informally known as Tuolumne Fall (not to be confused with a similarly named waterfall several miles upriver near Tuolumne Meadows). The waterfall on the Tuolumne is now submerged under Hetch Hetchy Reservoir.[citation needed]
Geology
The Hetch Hetchy Valley began as a V-shaped river canyon cut out by the ancestral Tuolumne River. About one million years ago, the extensive Sherwin glaciation widened, deepened and straightened river valleys along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, including Hetch Hetchy, Yosemite Valley, and
Compared with Yosemite Valley, the walls of Hetch Hetchy are smoother and rounder because it was glaciated to a greater extent. This is because the Tuolumne catchment basin above Hetch Hetchy is almost three times as large as the catchment area of the Merced River above Yosemite, allowing a greater volume of ice to form.[13]
Flora and fauna
Hetch Hetchy is home to a diverse array of plants and animals.
Before damming, the valley floor contained abundant stands of black oaks,
Due to its abundant wetlands and stream pools, Hetch Hetchy was notorious among early travelers for becoming infested with mosquitoes in the summertime. Said San Francisco resident William Denman in 1918, "The first time I went into the Hetch Hetchy the mosquitoes were intolerable. They would light upon a man's blue shirt and turn it brown, and were voracious as mosquitoes would be."[19]
Climate
Climate data for Hetch Hetchy, California, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1906–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °F (°C) | 72 (22) |
78 (26) |
85 (29) |
88 (31) |
95 (35) |
105 (41) |
103 (39) |
104 (40) |
106 (41) |
93 (34) |
83 (28) |
75 (24) |
106 (41) |
Mean maximum °F (°C) | 61 (16) |
67 (19) |
73 (23) |
79 (26) |
85 (29) |
92 (33) |
96 (36) |
95 (35) |
93 (34) |
85 (29) |
73 (23) |
61 (16) |
98 (37) |
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 48.9 (9.4) |
52.9 (11.6) |
56.9 (13.8) |
61.7 (16.5) |
69.2 (20.7) |
77.9 (25.5) |
85.1 (29.5) |
84.8 (29.3) |
79.3 (26.3) |
70.5 (21.4) |
54.8 (12.7) |
48.3 (9.1) |
65.9 (18.8) |
Daily mean °F (°C) | 38.8 (3.8) |
41.8 (5.4) |
44.0 (6.7) |
49.1 (9.5) |
56.3 (13.5) |
63.8 (17.7) |
70.3 (21.3) |
70.0 (21.1) |
64.6 (18.1) |
56.5 (13.6) |
45.3 (7.4) |
38.7 (3.7) |
53.3 (11.8) |
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 29.2 (−1.6) |
30.3 (−0.9) |
32.6 (0.3) |
36.7 (2.6) |
42.8 (6.0) |
49.6 (9.8) |
55.2 (12.9) |
55.0 (12.8) |
49.7 (9.8) |
42.0 (5.6) |
33.1 (0.6) |
29.5 (−1.4) |
40.5 (4.7) |
Mean minimum °F (°C) | 19 (−7) |
21 (−6) |
23 (−5) |
28 (−2) |
33 (1) |
40 (4) |
49 (9) |
49 (9) |
42 (6) |
33 (1) |
25 (−4) |
20 (−7) |
14 (−10) |
Record low °F (°C) | −4 (−20) |
0 (−18) |
10 (−12) |
16 (−9) |
25 (−4) |
30 (−1) |
36 (2) |
31 (−1) |
31 (−1) |
23 (−5) |
10 (−12) |
1 (−17) |
−4 (−20) |
Average precipitation inches (mm) | 6.15 (156) |
6.09 (155) |
5.31 (135) |
3.44 (87) |
2.04 (52) |
0.76 (19) |
0.33 (8.4) |
0.20 (5.1) |
0.77 (20) |
2.27 (58) |
4.50 (114) |
5.82 (148) |
37.68 (957.5) |
Average snowfall inches (cm) | 14.8 (38) |
12.8 (33) |
14.7 (37) |
5.8 (15) |
0.1 (0.25) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.1 (0.25) |
2.9 (7.4) |
12.0 (30) |
63.2 (160.9) |
Source: WRCC[20] |
History
Indigenous peoples
People have lived in Hetch Hetchy Valley for over 6,000 years.
Meadow plants unavailable in the lowlands were particularly valuable resources to these tribes. For thousands of years, Native Americans subjected the valley to controlled bushfires, which prevented forest from taking over the valley meadows.[22] Periodic clearing of the valley provided ample space for the growth of the grasses and shrubs they relied on, as well as additional room for large game animals such as deer to browse. In the 19th century, the first white visitors to the valley did not realize that Hetch Hetchy's extensive meadows were the product of millennia of management by Native Americans; instead they believed "the valley was purely a product of ancient geological forces (or divine intervention) ... this was fundamental to its allure as a destination and subject."[23]
The valley's name may be derived from a Miwok word earlier anglicized as hatchhatchie, which means "edible grasses"
While its cousin Yosemite Valley to the south had permanent Miwok settlements,[26] Hetch Hetchy was only seasonally inhabited. This was likely because of Hetch Hetchy's narrow outlet, which in years of heavy snowmelt created a bottleneck in the Tuolumne River and the subsequent flooding of the valley floor.[27]
Exploration and early development
In the early 1850s, a
During this time, the upper Tuolumne River, including Hetch Hetchy Valley, was visited by prospectors attracted by the
In 1867,
When Yosemite Valley became part of a state park in 1864, Hetch Hetchy received no such designation. As the grazing of livestock damaged native plants in the Hetch Hetchy Valley, mountaineer and naturalist
Interest in using the valley as a water source or reservoir dates back as far as the 1850s, when the Tuolumne Valley Water Company proposed developing water storage there for irrigation.[41] By the 1880s, San Francisco was looking to Hetch Hetchy water as a fix for its outdated and unreliable water system.[41] The city would repeatedly try to acquire water rights to Hetch Hetchy, including in 1901, 1903 and 1905, but was continually rebuffed because of conflicts with irrigation districts that had senior water rights on the Tuolumne River, and because of the valley's national park status.[42]
Damming
In 1906, after a major earthquake and subsequent fire that devastated San Francisco, the inadequacy of the city's water system was made tragically clear. San Francisco applied to the
Dam Hetch Hetchy! As well dam for water-tanks the people's cathedrals and churches, for no holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man.
Proponents of the dam replied that out of multiple sites considered by San Francisco, Hetch Hetchy had the "perfect architecture for a reservoir",[44] with pristine water, lack of development or private property, a steep-sided and flat-floored profile that would maximize the amount of water stored, and a narrow outlet ideal for placement of a dam.[43] They claimed the valley was not unique and would be even more beautiful with a lake. Muir predicted that this lake would create an unsightly "bathtub ring" around its perimeter, caused by the water's destruction of lichen growth on the canyon walls,[45] which would inevitably be visible at low lake levels.
Since the valley was within Yosemite National Park, an act of Congress was needed to authorize the project. The U.S. Congress passed and President Woodrow Wilson signed the Raker Act in 1913, which permitted the flooding of the valley under the conditions that power and water derived from the river could only be used for public interests. Ultimately, San Francisco sold hydropower from the dam to the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E), which led to decades of legal wrangling and controversy over terms in the Raker Act.[46]
The controversy over Hetch Hetchy was in the context of other political scandals and controversies, especially prevalent in the Taft administration. The Great Alaskan Land Fraud and the
Work on the Hetch Hetchy Project began in 1914. The 68 mi (109 km)
The Early Intake (Lower Cherry) Powerhouse began commercial operation five years before the O'Shaughnessy Dam was completed. The first Moccasin Powerhouse in
-
The narrow defile at the lower end of Hetch Hetchy Valley where San Francisco planned to dam the Tuolumne River, seen in 1914 before construction began
-
The same area seen today, with O'Shaughnessy Dam and Hetch Hetchy Reservoir
-
Tuolumne River below O'Shaughnessy Dam
Hetch Hetchy Project
Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct | |
---|---|
Coordinates | 37°56′51″N 119°47′13″W / 37.9475°N 119.7869°W |
Begins | Tuolumne River 37°51′09″N 119°59′30″W / 37.852425°N 119.991572°W |
Ends | Crystal Springs Reservoir 37°29′01″N 122°18′59″W / 37.483508°N 122.316306°W |
Maintained by | San Francisco Public Utilities Commission |
Characteristics | |
Total length | 167 mi (269 km) |
Capacity | 366 cu ft/s (10.4 m3/s) |
History | |
Construction start | 1914 |
Opened | 24 October 1934 |
Location | |
References | |
U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Hetch Hetchy. Note that map above only shows Bay Area portion of aqueduct. |
Hetch Hetchy Valley serves as the primary water source for the City and County of San Francisco and several surrounding municipalities in the greater San Francisco Bay Area. The dam and reservoir, combined with a series of aqueducts, tunnels, and hydroelectric plants as well as eight other storage dams, comprise a system known as the Hetch Hetchy Project, which provides 80% of the water supply for 2.6 million people.[51] The project is operated by the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. The city must pay a lease of $30,000 per year for the use of Hetch Hetchy, which sits on federal land.[52][53] The aqueduct delivers an average of 265,000 acre⋅ft (327,000,000 m3) of water each year, or 31,900,000 cu ft (900,000 m3) per day, to residents of San Francisco and San Mateo, Santa Clara and Alameda Counties.[54]
As completed, O'Shaughnessy Dam is 910 feet (280 m) long, spanning the valley at its narrow outlet.
After passing through the powerhouses, Hetch Hetchy water flows into the 167 mi (269 km) Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct which travels across the Central Valley. Just before reaching the Bay Area, it passes through the Irvington tunnel near the city of Fremont, and the aqueduct splits into four pipelines at 37°32′53″N 121°55′55″W / 37.548104°N 121.932041°W. These are called Bay Division Pipelines (BDPL) 1, 2, 3, and 4, with nominal pipeline diameters of 60, 66, 78, and 96 inches (1.5, 1.7, 2.0 and 2.4 m, respectively).[57] All four pipelines cross the Hayward fault. Pipelines 1 and 2 cross the San Francisco Bay to the south of the Dumbarton Bridge, while pipelines 3 and 4 run to the south of the bay. In the Bay Area, Hetch Hetchy water is stored in local facilities including Calaveras Reservoir, Crystal Springs Reservoir, and San Antonio Reservoir.[58] Pipelines 3 and 4 end at the Pulgas Water Temple, a small park that contains classical architectural elements which celebrate the water delivery.[59]
Water from Hetch Hetchy is some of the cleanest municipal water in the United States; San Francisco is one of six U.S. cities not required by law to filter its tap water, although the water is disinfected by ozonation and, since 2011, exposure to UV.[60] The water quality is high because of the unique geology of the upper Tuolumne River drainage basin, which consists mostly of bare granite; as a result, the rivers feeding Hetch Hetchy Reservoir have extremely low loads of sediments and nutrients. The watershed is also strictly protected, so swimming and boating are prohibited at the reservoir (although fishing is permitted at the reservoir and in the rivers which feed it),[61] a measure which is considered unusual for US lakes outside the region.[62] In 2018, the Department of the Interior of the Trump administration began to consider a proposal to allow limited boating on the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir for the first time, supported by the advocacy group Restore Hetch Hetchy which argued that "San Francisco received [Hetch Hetchy's] benefits long ago, but the American people have not."[62][63]
Proposed restoration
Arguments for
The battle over Hetch Hetchy Valley continues today[
Preservation groups including the Sierra Club and Restore Hetch Hetchy state that draining Hetch Hetchy would open the valley back up to recreation, a right that should be provided to the American people because the reservoir is within the legal boundaries of a national park. They acknowledge that a concerted effort would have to be made to control the introduction of wildlife and tourism back into the valley in order to prevent destabilization of the ecosystem,[69] and that it might be decades or even centuries before the valley could be returned to natural conditions.[70]
In 1987, the idea of razing the O'Shaughnessy Dam gained an adherent in Don Hodel, Secretary of the Department of the Interior under President Ronald Reagan.[71] Hodel called for a study of the effect of tearing down the dam. The National Park Service concluded that two years after draining the valley, grasses would cover most of its floor and within 10 years, clumps of cone-bearing trees and some oaks would take root. Within 50 years, vegetative cover would be complete except for exposed rocky areas. In this unmanaged scenario, where nature is left to take hold in the valley, eventually a forest would grow, rather than the meadow being restored. However, the same NPS study also finds that with intensive management, an outcome in which "the entire valley would appear much as it did before construction of the reservoir" is feasible.[72]
The dam would not have to be completely removed; rather, it would only be necessary to cut a hole through the base in order to drain the water and restore natural flows of the Tuolumne River. Most of the dam would remain in place, both to avoid the enormous costs of demolition and removal, and to serve as a monument for the workers who built it.[73] The water storage provided at Hetch Hetchy could be transferred into Lake Don Pedro lower on the Tuolumne River by raising the New Don Pedro Dam 30 ft (9.1 m). Water could be diverted into the Kirkwood and Moccasin Powerhouses using lower-impact diversion dams, providing power generation on a seasonal basis, and the increased height, and thus hydraulic head, at Don Pedro would also increase power generation there.[74] Furthermore, the removal of O'Shaughnessy Dam would not require costly sediment control measures, as would be typical on most dam removal projects, because of the high quality of the Tuolumne River water – in the first 90 years since its construction, only around 2 in (5.1 cm) of sediment had been deposited in Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, much less than most other dams.[75] A 2019 study commissioned by Restore Hetch Hetchy argued that draining the reservoir and equipping the valley with a tourism infrastructure comparable to that of Yosemite Valley (which receives around 100 times as many visitors annually as Hetch Hetchy's 44,000) could result in a "recreational value" of up to $178 million per year, or possibly an overall economic value of up to $100 billion.[68]
Arguments against
Those in opposition of dam removal state that demolishing O'Shaughnessy Dam would take away a valuable source of clean, renewable hydroelectric power in the Kirkwood and Moccasin powerhouses; even if measures such as seasonal water diversion into the powerhouses were employed, it would only make up for a fraction of the original power production.[76] The remaining deficit would likely have to be replaced by polluting fossil fuel generation.[51] The removal of the dam would be extremely costly, at least $3–10 billion,[77] and the transport of the demolished material away from the dam site along the narrow, winding Hetch Hetchy Road would be a logistical nightmare with possible environmental impacts. Most importantly, San Francisco would lose its source of high-quality mountain water, and would have to depend on lower-quality water from other reservoirs – which would require costly filtration and re-engineering of the aqueduct system – to meet its needs.[78][79]
The economic wisdom of removing the dam has been frequently questioned.
Opponents of dam removal have pointed out that the flooding of the Hetch Hetchy Valley has also deterred the crowds that overrun other areas of Yosemite National Park. Indeed, Hetch Hetchy today[when?] remains the least visited developed area of the park.[85] Karin Klein has described Yosemite Valley as "so crammed ... that it looks more like a ripstop ghetto than the site of a nature experience."[86] However, she does support breaching the dam once it has reached the end of its lifespan, and not replacing it.[86] In November 2012, San Francisco voters soundly rejected Proposition F,[87] which would have required the city to conduct an $8 million study on how the flooded valley could be drained and restored to its former state. The proposed study would also have been required to identify potential replacements for the water storage capacity and hydroelectric power production.[88][89]
See also
- Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne
- Hetch Hetchy Railroad
- Lake Vernon trail
- List of dams and reservoirs in California
- List of power stations in California
- List of the tallest dams in the United States
- List of lakes in California
- List of largest reservoirs of California
- The National Parks: America's Best Idea
- Gifford Pinchot
- San Francisco Public Utilities Commission
- San Francisco Water Department
- Timeline of environmental events
- Tuolumne River
- Yosemite National Park
Citations
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- ^ a b Muir, John (1912). "Hetch Hetchy Valley". The Yosemite. New York: The Century Co.
- ^ "Nature's Garden". Restore Hetch Hetchy. Archived from the original on 2013-07-19. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
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- ^ "Alternatives for Restoration of Hetch Hetchy Valley Following Removal of the Dam and Reservoir" (PDF). Sierra Club. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ "Hetch Hetchy Reclaimed: Drain it, then what?". The Pulitzer Prizes.
- ^ a b c d e This article incorporates public domain material from Hetch Hetchy Valley (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
- ^ "Rancheria Falls". Yosemite National Park / Hetch Hetchy, California, USA. World of Waterfalls.
- ^ Righter 2005, p. 15.
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- ^ Huber 2007, p. 84.
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- ^ Philp, Tom (2004-08-19). "Hetch Hetchy reclaimed: The dam downstream". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2013-06-02.
- ^ Riegelhuth, Richard; Botti, S.; Keay, J. "Alternatives for restoration of Hetch Hetchy Valley following removal of the dam and reservoir page 15" (PDF).
- ^ "What Lies Beneath?" (PDF). Backcountry Pictures. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Nash, J. Madeline (2005-07-11). "Is This Worth a Dam?". Time. Archived from the original on July 14, 2005.
- ^ Biba, Erin (2012-12-11). "What Happens When You Remove a Dam". Popular Mechanics.
The valley would be covered in about two inches of sediment, which is unusual to Hetch Hetchy; many dams collect large amounts of sediment, however the Tuolumne riverbed is mostly granite and erodes slowly.
- ^ "Chapter 9: Impact of restoration on hydropower production and revenues" (PDF). Environmental Defense Fund. Retrieved 2013-05-25.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Hetch Hetchy Restoration Study" (PDF). California Department of Water Resources. 2006. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ "Worth a Dam? Hetch Hetchy in Yosemite". Earth Island Journal. 2012. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ Onishi, Norimitsu (2012-09-09). "Putting Bay Area's Water Sources to a Vote". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ Bowe, Rebecca (2011-08-09). "Ecological rewind: Environmentalists want to tear down O'Shaughnessy Dam and restore the Hetch Hetchy Valley, but does their plan hold water?". San Francisco Bay Guardian.
- ^ Pope, Carl (November–December 1987). "Undamming Hetch Hetchy". Sierra. Sierra Club: 34–38.
- ^ Morain, Dan; Houston, Paul (1987-08-07). "Hodel Would Tear Down Dam in Hetch Hetchy". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Glennon 2009, p. 121.
- Sacramento Bee.
- ^ "What will a restored valley look like?". Restore Hetch Hetchy. Archived from the original on 2013-07-04. Retrieved 2013-07-02.
- ^ ISSN 0458-3035.
- ^ "San Francisco Department of Elections, November 2012 Results". Retrieved 29 November 2012.
- ^ Wildermuth, John (2012-11-10). "Hetch Hetchy fight not over, activists say". San Francisco Examiner.
- ^ Rogers, Paul (2012-11-12). "San Francisco vote to study draining Hetch Hetchy Reservoir is defeated". Mercury News. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
General and cited references
- Bibby, Brian (2006). Scott, Amy (ed.). Yosemite: Art of an American Icon (section). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24922-4.
- Glennon, Robert Jerome (2009). Unquenchable: America's Water Crisis and What to Do About It. Island Press. ISBN 978-1-59726-639-0.
- Huber, Norman King (2007). Geological Ramblings in Yosemite. Heyday. ISBN 978-1-59714-072-0.
- Jones, Ray (2010). It Happened in Yosemite National Park: Remarkable Events That Shaped History. Globe Pequot. ISBN 978-0-7627-6231-6.
- Matthes, François (1930). Geologic history of the Yosemite valley. United States Government Printing Office.
- Righter, Robert W. (2005). The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803410-0.
- Simpson, John W. (2005). Dam!: Water, Power, Politics, and Preservation in Hetch Hetchy and Yosemite National Park. Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-375-42231-5.
- Whitney, Josiah Dwight (1874). The Yosemite guide-book: a description of the Yosemite Valley and the adjacent region of the Sierra Nevada, and of the big trees of California. University Press; printed by Welch, Bigelow, and Co.
- Wohlforth, Charles P. (2004). Frommer's Family Vacations in the National Parks. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-7645-7075-7.
Further reading
- Aqua Blog Maven (19 August 2008). "The Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct". Aquafornia. Archived from the original on 2013-01-10. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
- Bay Area Economic Forum (October 2002). "Hetch Hetchy Water and the Bay Area Economy" (.PDF). Bay Area Council and the Association of Bay Area Governments: 5. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - Dziegielewski, Benedykt; Garbharran, Hari P.; Langowski, John F. Jr (1997). Lessons Learned from the California Drought (1987–1992) (illustrated ed.). Diane Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 0-7881-4163-5.
- Null, Sarah (December 2003). "Thesis: Water Supply Implications of Removing O'Shaughnessy Dam" (PDF). University of California, Davis. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - "San Francisco Water Sources". San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. 2009. Archived from the original on 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
- Flagg, Jeffrey B. (2011). "National Parks and Water". CQ Press.
- De Benedetti, Chris (2015). "New Irvington Tunnel latest in Hetch Hetchy water system improvements". Mercury News. Retrieved Dec 31, 2015.
External links
- U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Hetch Hetchy
- O'Shaughnessy Dam at Structurae
- Current Conditions, Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, California Department of Water Resources
- San Francisco Public Utilities Commission: Hetch Hetchy Water and Power
- United States Geological Survey
- California Resources Agency Hetch Hetchy Restoration Study
- Bay Area Water Supply and Conservation Agency on Hetch Hetchy dam
- Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. CA-366, "Bay Crossing Reach of the Bay Division Pipelines Nos. 1 and 2, Fremont, Alameda County, CA", 50 photos, 81 data pages, 4 photo caption pages