O'Shaughnessy Dam (California)
O'Shaughnessy Dam | |
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O'Shaughnessy Dam is a 430-foot (131 m) high concrete
Although San Francisco had sought Tuolumne River water as early as the 1890s, this project did not move forward until the disastrous earthquake and fire of 1906, which underscored the insufficiency of the existing water supply. The Hetch Hetchy Valley – then compared to Yosemite Valley for its scenic beauty – was chosen for its water quality and hydroelectric potential, but the location within the national park generated controversy. An act of Congress was required to circumvent federal protection of the Tuolumne River, with the reasoning that public land should be developed for the public benefit.
Construction of the dam started in 1919 and was finished in 1923,
Hetch Hetchy represented the first great environmental controversy in the US,[10] and debate over the dam and reservoir continues today. Preservationist groups such as the Sierra Club lobby for the restoration of the valley, while others argue that leaving the dam in place would be the better economic and environmental decision.[11]
Background
In the late 19th century, the city of San Francisco was rapidly outgrowing its limited water supply, which depended on intermittent local springs and streams.
Out of fourteen potential water sources considered by the city – which included
In 1908 Secretary of the Interior
Muir, the Sierra Club and other groups were outraged by the federal government's permission for development at Hetch Hetchy.
Construction
Work on the Hetch Hetchy project began in early 1914 shortly after the passage of the Raker Act. The city hired John R. Freeman, who had previously worked on the water supply systems of Boston and New York City, to plan the complex dam and aqueduct system.[31][32] Civil engineer Michael O'Shaughnessy would oversee the construction and design details of the Hetch Hetchy project.[33] The dam in Hetch Hetchy Valley would subsequently be named in his honor. Before construction of O'Shaughnessy Dam could commence, the city completed a 70-foot (21 m) high dam at Lake Eleanor to provide water for the Early Intake Powerhouse, which was necessary to provide electricity for the construction site of the larger dam.[34][35]
Initial construction of the dam cost $6,121,000 ($109 million in 2023 dollars),
Actual groundbreaking on O'Shaughnessy Dam was on August 1, 1919, when Utah Construction Company of San Francisco began preparing the dam site for construction.[40] Workers began clearing the trees in Hetch Hetchy Valley to prepare it for receiving waters of the future reservoir.[36] A 20-foot (6.1 m) diameter tunnel, later expanded to 23-by-25-foot (7.0 m × 7.6 m), was dug around the south side of the O'Shaughnessy Dam site, and a timber crib cofferdam diverted the waters of the Tuolumne River into the tunnel during construction.[36] The riverbed on the site of the future dam was excavated over 100 ft (30 m) before hitting the granite bedrock.[20] A retaining wall was poured on the upstream side to prevent water seepage into the foundation hole, and the granite was scoured and artificially roughened to prepare for receiving concrete.[36]
The concrete for the dam was processed in a plant located shortly upstream from the construction site, with sand and rock excavated from abundant
The first hydropower was delivered in 1925 with the completion of the Moccasin Powerhouse, fed by Hetch Hetchy water through the Canyon and Mountain Tunnels.[42] However, the first water deliveries did not reach San Francisco until 1934, eleven years after the completion of O'Shaughnessy Dam and twenty years after groundbreaking of the Hetch Hetchy project.[43] O'Shaughnessy Dam had been designed with adequate foundations and a unique stepped face in order to make possible a future increase in the dam height. This was done in anticipation of rapid growth in the demand for water and hydroelectricity. Indeed, between 1935 and 1938, the dam was raised by 85 feet (26 m); a new spillway and outlet channels were constructed to accommodate the increased height and storage capacity, which helped to increase summer generation at downstream powerhouses.[44]
The dam and reservoir today
Completed to its final dimensions in 1938, O'Shaughnessy Dam now stands 312 feet (95 m) above the riverbed and 430 feet (130 m) above bedrock. The crest spans 900 feet (270 m) with a 17-foot (5.2 m) wide roadway crossing the top; the thickness of the dam wall reaches a maximum 308 feet (94 m) at the base. Altogether, the structure contains 662,605 cu yd (506,598 m3) of concrete and 700,000 pounds (320,000 kg) of steel.[3][2][45] Aside from normal water flows through the Canyon Tunnel to the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct, water is released from the reservoir through eleven jet-flow gates on the dam face and an unlined side spillway controlled by three 65 ft (20 m) wide steel drum gates. With gates lowered, the spillway has a capacity of 48,600 cubic feet per second (1,380 m3/s).[46]
Behind the dam, Hetch Hetchy Reservoir stretches for 8 miles (13 km) along the Tuolumne River, submerging Hetch Hetchy Valley and the lowermost section of the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne. At maximum capacity, the reservoir stores 360,400 acre-feet (444,500,000 m3),[47] covering 1,972 acres (798 ha). The dam and reservoir receive water from the upper 459 square miles (1,190 km2) of the Tuolumne River watershed, and are supplied with water by Falls Creek, Tiltill Creek, and Rancheria Creek in addition to the main stem of the Tuolumne.[6] Hetch Hetchy is accessed by the Evergreen/Hetch Hetchy Road, which runs 14 miles (23 km) from Big Oak Flat along the Tuolumne River and terminates at the crest of the dam. The road is open seasonally as it is not plowed in the winter months.[48]
Hetch Hetchy water drives turbines in the Kirkwood and
Water diverted at O'Shaughnessy Dam feeds into the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct, which provides 85 percent of the municipal water for 2.4 million people in the San Francisco Bay Area.[50] The firm water yield is 265,000 acre-feet (0.327 km3) per year, or 237 million gallons (895,000 m3) per day.[51] Because of the unique geology of the Hetch Hetchy watershed, which consists of shallow soils underlain by solid granite bedrock, water that flows into the reservoir is exceptionally clear and of very high quality.[52] This quality is further maintained by stringent protection of the watershed; boating and swimming are prohibited at Hetch Hetchy Reservoir (although fishing is permitted at the reservoir and in the rivers which feed it).[53] As a result, San Francisco tap water is some of the cleanest in the United States, without even the need for filtration, and is said to be of better quality than most bottled water.[54][55]
Structural statistics of the O'Shaughnessy Dam
Statistical information of the first construction installment of the O'Shaughnessy Dam is available at the site of the O'Shaughnessy Dam itself.[56]
Before the height increase installment (pre-1938) the statistical measurements were:
Foundation elevation | 3,386 ft 1,032 m |
Bottom valves elevation | 3,508 ft 1,069 m |
Initial crest elevation | 3,726 ft 1,136 m |
Storage capacity | 66,000,000,000 U.S. gallons 2.5×1011 liters; 5.5×1010 imperial gallons |
Drainage area | 294,000 acres 119,000 hectares |
Reservoir area | 1,590 acres 640 hectares |
Following the height increase of 86 feet which was implemented in 1938, the structural statistical information changed to:
Height above stream bed | 312 ft 95 m |
Height above foundation | 425 ft 130 m |
Crest elevation | 3,812 ft 1,162 m |
Crest length | 800 ft 240 m |
Storage capacity | 117,300,000,000 U.S. gallons 4.44×1011 liters; 9.77×1010 imperial gallons |
Watershed area | 458 sq mi 1,190 km2 |
Reservoir area | 1,872 acres 758 hectares |
Proposed Dam Removal
O'Shaughnessy Dam has been controversial since its original construction both for its environmental impact and claims regarding violations of the
In 2004, a feasibility report was developed which identified alternatives to O'Shaughnessy Dam.[60] The report provides a planning-level analysis for replacing the water and hydropower benefits that the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir and O’Shaughnessy Dam provide. The report strove to ensure that all solutions must be technologically feasible and affordable and must assure a dependable supply of water to both San Francisco and all affected California communities. The report was peer-reviewed by academic experts and information for the report was provided provided by the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, the Bay Area Water Supply and Conservation Agency, and the Turlock and Modesto Irrigation Districts to help ensure an accurate report.
In 2006, researchers from the University of California, Davis published an article in a peer-reviewed journal looking at the implications of removing O'Shaughnessy Dam. The study modeled water availability based on increased water demands and the effects of warmer/dryer hydrologic conditions to the year 2100.[61] The study found that dam removal in combination with other water infrastructure changes had few effects on the Hetch Hetchy water delivery system and delivery of water to San Francisco. The study identified water filtration as one of the major cost factors in removal of the dam.
Opponents of dam removal state that the estimated demolition cost of $3–10 billion
Despite the hotly contested status of O'Shaughnessy Dam in the environmental field, and occasional federal money set aside for studying alternatives to Hetch Hetchy – such as $7 million provided by President
See also
- List of largest reservoirs of California
- List of power stations in California
- List of the tallest dams in the United States
- Pulgas Water Temple
- San Francisco Public Utilities Commission
References
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- ^ a b c Bolin, Leslie K. (1987). "Hetch Hetchy: Facts and Figures" (PDF). U.C. Davis Environmental Law Society. University of California Davis. Retrieved 2013-05-25.[permanent dead link]
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- ^ a b c "Chapter 9: Impact of restoration on hydropower production and revenues". Environmental Defense Fund.
- ^ a b USGS Topo Maps for United States (Map). Cartography by United States Geological Survey. ACME Mapper. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ "The O'Shaughnessy Dam Debate: Transcript". PBS NewsHour. PBS. 2005-08-12. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
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- ^ Hennessey 2012, p. 9.
- ^ a b "The Hetch Hetchy Dam Controversy: An Introduction". Assumption College. Archived from the original on 2004-12-30. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ a b Hennessey 2012, p. 17.
- ^ Hennessey 2012, p. 23.
- ^ "Giving a Dam: Congress Debates Hetch Hetchy". History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Taylor 1926, p. 37–44.
- ^ "October 1, 1890: Yosemite National Park established". This Day in History. History.com. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Righter 2005, p. 11.
- ^ a b Amero, Richard W. "Lessons From Hetch Hetchy". Balboa Park History. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ a b Manetta, Brian. "John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and the Battle for Hetch Hetchy". Ithaca College History Journal. Ithaca College. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Taylor 1926, p. 143.
- ^ Davies 2006, p. 26.
- ^ "The Battle for the Tuolumne - Chapter 11". The Greening of Paradise Valley: The First 100 Years of the Modesto Irrigation District. Modesto Irrigation District. Retrieved 2014-04-12.
- ^ Carlsson, Chris. "The Hetch Hetchy Story, Part II: PG&E and the Raker Act". FoundSF. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Starr 1997, p. 279.
- ^ "Hetch Hetchy: Time to Redeem a Historic Mistake". Sierra Club. Archived from the original on 2013-05-24. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ "The Hetch Hetchy Restoration Task Force". Sierra Club. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
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- ^ Righter 2005, p. 8.
- ^ Davies 2006, p. 12.
- ^ Starr 1997, p. 283.
- ^ Cherny, Robert (1994). "Michael M. O'Shaughnessy". City Commercial, City Beautiful, City Practical: The San Francisco Visions of William C. Ralston, James D. Phelan, And Michael M. O'Shaughnessy. FoundSF. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Hennessey 2012, pp. 34–35.
- ^ a b "Timeline of the Ongoing Battle over Hetch Hetchy". Sierra Club. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h O'Shaughnessy, Michael M. (October 1925). "Hetch Hetchy Water Supply". Bureau of Engineering of the Department of Public Works – City and County of San Francisco, California.
- ^ Righter 2005, p. 142.
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- ^ "Hetch Hetchy and the O'Shaughnessy Dam". Round The World Magazine. Retrieved 2017-10-31.
- ^ Browne, Brian. "Western Water Wars: Efforts to Take Over San Francisco's Hetch Hetchy Systems" (PDF). Reason Foundation. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ Redmond, Tim (2004-05-26). "Hetch Hetchy Power Debacle: Continuing Yosemite Threat". Trails. Clovis Free Press. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ Nash, J. Madeline (2005-07-11). "Is This Worth a Dam?". TIME Magazine. Archived from the original on July 14, 2005.
- ^ Rosekrans, Spreck; Ryan, Nancy E.; Hayden, Ann H.; Graff, Thomas J.; Balbus, John M. (2004). "Paradise Regained, Solutions for Restoring Yosemite's Hetch Hetchy Valley" (PDF). Retrieved August 12, 2022.
{{cite journal}}
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- ^ Bowe, Rebecca (2011-08-09). "Ecological rewind: Environmentalists want to tear down O'Shaughnessy Dam and restore the Hetch Hetchy Valley, but does their plan hold water?". San Francisco Bay Guardian.
- ^ Morain, Dan; Houston, Paul (1987-08-07). "Hodel Would Tear Down Dam in Hetch Hetchy". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions About Hetch Hetchy Reservoir and the Regional Water & Power System". San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. Archived from the original on 2013-08-23. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ "Worth a Dam? Hetch Hetchy in Yosemite". Earth Island Journal. 2012. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ Onishi, Norimitsu (2012-09-09). "Putting Bay Area's Water Sources to a Vote". New York Times. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ De Carion, Denis. "Three Square Miles of Open Space: Is It Enough?" (PDF). University of California Davis. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
- ^ "Alternatives for Restoration of Hetch Hetchy Valley Following Removal of the Dam and Reservoir" (PDF). Sierra Club. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Klein, Karin (2012-08-15). "On Hetch Hetchy, John Muir was wrong: California's revered naturalist wrote a poetic diatribe against the drowning of the great valley. But the reservoir has spared it some of the indignities of Yosemite Valley". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ Glennon 2009, p. 121.
- ^ Rogers, Paul (2012-11-12). "San Francisco vote to study draining Hetch Hetchy Reservoir is defeated". Mercury News. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ "Proposition F Water and Environment Plan, San Francisco County". SmartVoter. 2012-11-06. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
Works cited
- Davies, Leslie T. (May 2006). "San Francisco-Hetch Hetchy Valley Connection" (PDF). Humboldt State University. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- Glennon, Robert Jerome (2009). Unquenchable: America's Water Crisis and What To Do About It. Island Press. ISBN 978-1-59726-639-0.
- Hennessey, Beverly (2012). Hetch Hetchy. Images of America. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-9322-7.
- Righter, Robert W. (2005). The Battle Over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514947-0.
- Starr, Kevin (1997). Endangered Dreams: The Great Depression in California. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511802-5.
- Taylor, Ray W. (1926). Hetch Hetchy: the story of San Francisco's struggle to provide a water supply for her future needs. R.J. Orozco.
External links
- Historic images of the dam during and after construction Archived 2013-04-10 at the Wayback Machine
- Daily storage and release data for O'Shaughnessy Dam and Hetch Hetchy Reservoir – California Department of Water Resources