Heterosexism

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    Heterosexism is a system of

    norm[2]
    and therefore superior.

    Although heterosexism is defined in the online editions of the

    internalised hatred of one's sexual orientation.[5]

    Heterosexism as discrimination ranks

    civil rights, economic opportunities, and social equality in many of the world's jurisdictions and societies. It is often related to homophobia
    .

    Background

    While the

    gay rights activist, Craig Rodwell.[6]

    Etymology and usage

    Similar terms include "heterocentrism" and "heterosexualism".[7] Although the well-established term heterosexism is often explained as a coinage modeled on sexism, the derivation of its meaning points more to (1.) heterosex(ual) + -ism than (2.) hetero- + sexism.

    Given this lack of

    gender theory and queer theory, heteronormativity
    . However, not all of these descriptors are synonymous to heterosexism.

    Contrast to homophobia

    maleness-masculinity and femaleness-femininity
    are complementary.

    Psychology professor Gregory M. Herek states that "[Heterosexism] operates through a dual process of invisibility and attack. Homosexuality usually remains culturally invisible; when people who engage in homosexual behavior or who are identified as homosexual become visible, they are subject to attack by society."

    value system, [rather] it is a tool in the maintenance of gender dichotomy."[15] She continues by saying that "assaults on homosexuals and other individuals who deviate from sex role norms are viewed as a learned form of social control of deviance rather than a defensive response to personal threat."[15]

    Parallels and intersections

    Using the term heterosexism highlights the parallels between antigay sentiment and other forms of prejudice, such as

    UC Davis.[14]

    It has been argued that the concept of heterosexism is similar to the concept of

    The Advocate magazine,[19] exploit black people's suffering and experiences to legitimize their own.[20] Nonetheless, a study presented at the British Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology 2009 Conference shows that heterosexist prejudice is more pervasive than racism.[21]

    Heterosexism can also intersect with racism by further emphasizing differences among arbitrary groups of people.[22] For example, heterosexism can compound the effects of racism by:

    • promoting injustices towards a person already facing injustices because of their race
    • establishing
      social hierarchies
      that allow one group more privilege than other groups.

    Likewise, racism can allow LGBT people to be subjected to additional discrimination or violence if they belong to or are considered a part of a socially devalued racial category.

    marginalized or viewed as different.[24]

    As a set of beliefs and attitudes

    See also:
    Social attitudes toward homosexuality

    Individual and group level

    Brochure used by Save Our Children in 1977

    Heterosexism as a set of beliefs and attitudes relies on a core tenet according to which

    appeals to authority, or popular beliefs, but others consider to be conventional wisdom or sociobiological
    knowledge can include, among others, the following:

    In an attempt to bring awareness to people who exhibit heterosexist views but are possibly not aware of it, Mark Rochlin constructed a set of questions in 1977 which are questions that non-heterosexual people are often exposed to, but not heterosexuals, such as "What do you think caused your sexuality?" This heterosexuality questionnaire is often distributed around college campuses to bring awareness of heterosexist sexual prejudice against LGBT persons.[26]

    Institutional level

    As well as comprising attitudes held by an individual or a social group, heterosexism can also exist as the expression of attitudes within an institution. As a result, schools, hospitals, and correctional facilities can act as a showcase for heterosexist attitudes in various ways. First, schools may implement these attitudes and ideas through unequal and inconsistent disciplinary actions. One such example is meting out harsher punishment to a same-sex couple violating the school ground rules while allowing a heterosexual couple to pass with a more lenient disciplinary action for an equal or identical violation. Also, hospitals may limit patient visiting only to immediate family, i.e., relatives, and exclude same-sex partners.[27]

    Heterosexism affects the family in several ways. For example, in many countries around the world, same-sex marriage is not allowed, so non-heterosexual persons must remain unmarried or enter into heterosexual marriage.[28] Many countries also deny rights and benefits to same-sex couples, including custodial and adoption rights for children, Social Security benefits, and automatic durable power of attorney and hospital spousal rights.[28]

    Research and measurements

    Measurements

    Psychologists have aimed to measure heterosexism using various methods. One particular method involves the use of a

    Implicit Association Test. A popular implicit association test measuring heterosexism that is open to the public is a virtual laboratory called Project Implicit
    .

    One limitation present in research on heterosexism is that there often is not a distinction between homophobia and heterosexism. Individuals are more likely to be aware of homophobic tendencies rather than heterosexist views; thus, researchers often measure homophobia instead of heterosexism.[29]

    Research

    Research on heterosexism has focused on variables that may affect views of heterosexism. For instance, in a study by psychologist, Gregory M. Herek, it was found that there was a gender difference between heterosexual attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.[30] Specifically, the study reveals that heterosexual individuals all seem to have some heterosexist tendency, however, heterosexual males have a greater tendency than heterosexual females to exhibit negative attitudes towards non-heterosexual individuals (this includes gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals). Another notable finding of Herek's study was that heterosexual males showed a greater tendency to demonstrate hostility towards gay men rather than lesbians.[30] Other factors that Herek acknowledges to contribute to heterosexism include individual differences, religiosity, conforming to social norms, right-wing authoritarianism, customs and beliefs regarding cultural tradition, and personal experience with non-heterosexual individuals.[30] Research has also recognized the effects of level of education on views of heterosexism.[31] Wright et al. revealed that higher levels of education, or having more years of education, is related to less homophobic tendencies.[31]

    As discrimination

    Explicit or open

    This type of heterosexism includes

    discrimination against LGBT persons
    such as:

    Implicit or hidden

    This form of heterosexism operates through invisibility, under-representation, and erasure. It includes:

    • Lack or under-representation of homosexual or bisexual people in advertising to the general public;
    • Censorship of homosexual or bisexual characters, themes, and issues in works of art, literature, entertainment; see also "Sugar Time" episode of Postcards from Buster
    • Exclusion of historical and political figures' and celebrities' homosexuality or bisexuality; their portrayal as heterosexuals;
    • Complete avoidance of mentioning these people and their positive contributions particularly in news media;
    • In the context of sex education or professional advice, referring only to female–male relationships when discussing female or male sexual attraction and activity;
    • Silence on issues affecting homosexual and bisexual people at school or work or absence of their discussion in a positive light;
    • Implementation and use of
      content-control software
      (censorware) to filter out information and websites that focus on homosexuality or bisexuality;
    • Postal censorship and border control or customs seizure of publications deemed obscene solely on the basis of them containing material related to homosexuality even when they contain no erotic or pornographic material; see also Little Sister's Book and Art Emporium
    • Work environments that tacitly require gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals not to reveal their sexual orientation via discussion of their relationship status while heterosexuals can discuss their relationships and marital status freely;
    • At public libraries or bookstores: rejection, removal or destruction of
      Jenny lives with Eric and Martin
      ), films, and posters with homosexual themes;
    • Refusal to include families headed by same-sex parents at school events or to represent such family diversity in school curricula; see also anti-bias curriculum;
    • Coercive or forced
      sex reassignment surgery on gay men, lesbian women, and bisexuals – an issue addressed in Tanaz Eshaghian's 2008 documentary, Be Like Others. See also: LGBT rights in Iran
    • Forced disappearance, damnatio memoriae, ostracism, shunning, and other forms of social rejection geared towards making homosexual or bisexual people personae non gratae
      .

    Effects

    Heterosexism causes a range of effects on people of any sexual orientation. However, the main effects of heterosexism are marginalization, and anti-LGBT violence and abuse.[citation needed]

    Marginalization

    The main effect of heterosexism is the

    pass
    for heterosexual.

    Marginalization also occurs when marriage rights are heterosexist. More specifically, when marriage rights are exclusive to female–male couples, all same-sex couples, be they gay, lesbian, straight or mixed, are prevented from enjoying marriage's corresponding legal privileges, especially those regarding property rights, health benefits, and child custody. Moreover, such limitation prevents same-sex couples from receiving the inherent social respect of marriage and its cultural symbolism.

    Anti-LGBT violence and abuse

    Yolanda Dreyer, professor of practical theology at University of Pretoria, has stated that "Heterosexism leads to prejudice, discrimination, harassment, and violence. It is driven by fear and hatred (Dreyer 5)."[36] Along the same lines, forensic psychologist Karen Franklin explains violence caused by heterosexism toward both men and women, regardless of their sexual orientations:[15]

    [T]hrough heterosexism, any male who refuses to accept the dominant culture's assignment of appropriate masculine behavior is labeled early on as a "

    fag" and then subjected to bullying
    . Similarly, any woman who opposes male dominance and control can be labeled a lesbian and attacked. The potential of being ostracized as homosexual, regardless of actual sexual attractions and behaviors, puts pressure on all people to conform to a narrow standard of appropriate gender behavior, thereby maintaining and reinforcing our society's hierarchical gender structure.

    Another form of heterosexist violence as

    women's national football team.[37]

    According to a Frontline article titled "Inside the Mind of People Who Hate Gays", bias-related violence against homosexuals is believed to be widespread in the United States, with perpetrators typically described by victims as young men in groups who assault targets of convenience. Victims accounts suggest that assailants possess tremendous rage and hatred; indeed, documentation of horrific levels of brutality has led gay activists to characterize the violence as political terrorism aimed at all gay men and lesbians. Other motives for antigay violence suggested in the literature include male bonding, proving heterosexuality, and purging secret homosexual desires.[38]

    Responses

    According to an article in the Howard Journal of Communications, some LGBT individuals have responded to heterosexism through direct confrontation and communication, or through the removal of self from the hostile environment.[39]

    See also

    References

    1. ^
      ISBN 0-7914-1696-8
      .
    2. ISBN 978-1-317-82328-5. Archived
      from the original on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2018. The definition for heterosexism that I used for authors in the collection is: The expectation that all persons should be or are heterosexual. The belief that heterosexual relations are normal and the norm. These expectations and beliefs occur on individual, institutional, and cultural levels. ...
    3. ^ "Yahoo". Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
    4. ^ "Definition of HETEROSEXISM". Archived from the original on 21 April 2009. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
    5. ^ Kira Weidner. "Heterosexism and Internalized Heterosexism". Archived from the original on 4 September 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
    6. ^ Rodwell, Craig. ' 'The Tarnished Golden Rule' ' pg. 5, QQ Magazine, Queen's Quarterly Publishing, New York. (January/February 1971 issue, Vol. 3, No. 1) Retrieved 21 July 2011.
    7. ISBN 1-58391-328-9
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    8. ^ International Lesbian and Gay Association. "State-sponsored Homophobia" Archived 23 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
    9. ^ LGBTQ on-line encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and queer culture
    10. ^ "Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com. 2008. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2008.
    11. ^ "homophobia – Dictionary definition and pronunciation – Yahoo! Education". Education.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
    12. ^ "Accueil". Granddictionnaire.com. 13 May 2013. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
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    14. ^ a b Gregory M. Herek. "Definitions: Sexual Prejudice, Homophobia, and Heterosexism". Psychology.ucdavis.edu. Archived from the original on 29 December 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
    15. ^ a b c Gregory M. Herek, ed. (1998). "Unassuming Motivations: Contextualizing the Narratives of Antigay Assailants". Stigma and Sexual Orientation: Understanding Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexuals. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 1–20. Cited in Franklin, Karen (1998), Inside The Mind Of People Who Hate Gays, Assault on Gay America, PBS, archived from the original on 12 October 2011, retrieved 29 May 2008
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    17. ^ "Celebrities". Archived from the original on 9 March 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
    18. ^ "Issues of race and sexuality discussed, Susquehanna Crusader Online, accessed Aug 29, 2009". Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
    19. ^ "Gay is the New Black, accessed Aug 30, 2009". Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2009.
    20. ^ "Gay is NOT the new Black, accessed Aug 29, 2009". Archived from the original on 2 March 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
    21. ^ "Prejudice study finds gay is the new black, accessed Sept 3, 2009". Archived from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
    22. ^ Tatum, Beverly (1997). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?. Basic Books. pp. 21–22.
    23. ^ (2008) Heterosexism and Homophobia. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, 2, 1–4. Retrieved 31 March 2008 from Gale Virtual Reference Library: http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS Archived 7 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
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    26. ^ "The Pink Practice – Heterosexuality Questionnaire". Archived from the original on 2 May 2018. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
    27. ^ Heterosexism and Homophobia. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, 2, 1–4. Retrieved 31 March 2008 from Gale Virtual Reference Library: http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS Archived 7 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
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    33. ^ American Civil Liberties Union: Free Speech, Free Expression and Prom Archived 24 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine
    34. ^ "Who are you taking to the prom this year?". American Civil Liberties Union. 31 December 2000. Archived from the original on 11 August 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013. Aaron Fricke decided he wanted to go to his senior prom with Paul Guilbert. His principal wouldn't let him.
    35. ^ "GordonMoyes.com » Parliamentary Inquiries – Same Sex Adoption". Archived from the original on 7 October 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
    36. ^ Dreyer, Yolanda. "Hegemony and the Internalisation of Homophobia Caused by Heteronormativity." Department of Practical Theology. 2007. University of Pretoria.5 May 2008 [www.up.ac.za/dspace/bitstream/2263/2741/1/Dreyer_Hegemony(2007).pdf.]
    37. ^ Kelly, Annie (12 March 2009). "Raped and killed for being a lesbian: South Africa ignores 'corrective' attacks". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 June 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
    38. ^ Franklin, Karen. "The Roots Of Homophobia – Inside The Mind Of People Who Hate Gays | Assault On Gay America". FRONTLINE. PBS. Archived from the original on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
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