High-altitude platform station

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Pseudo-satellite" redirects here. Not to be confused with Pseudolite.
"Atmospheric satellite" redirects here. Not to be confused with Weather satellite.
A high altitude platform can provide observation or communication services.

A high-altitude platform station (HAPS, which can also mean high-altitude pseudo-satellite or high-altitude platform systems) also known as atmospheric satellite is a long

aerodynamic like airplanes, or aerostatic like airships or balloons
. High-altitude long endurance (HALE)
radio stations
at an altitude of 20 to 50 km above waypoints, for weeks.

High-altitude, long endurance flight has been studied since at least 1983, and demonstrator programs since 1994.

Hydrogen and solar power
have been proposed as alternatives to conventional engines. Above commercial air transport and wind turbulence, at high altitudes, drag as well as lift are reduced. HAPS could be used for
border security, maritime patrol and anti-piracy operations, disaster response, or agricultural observation
.

While reconnaissance aircraft have been capable of reaching high altitudes since the 1950s, their endurance is limited. One of the few operational HALE aircraft is the Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk. There are many solar powered, lightweight prototypes like the

Helios, or the Airbus Zephyr
that can fly for 64 days; few are as advanced as these. Conventional aviation fuels have been used in prototypes since 1970 and can fly for 60 hours like the Boeing Condor.
Hydrogen aircraft can fly even longer, a week or longer, like the AeroVironment Global Observer
.

Stratospheric airships are often presented as a competing technology. However few prototypes have been built and none are operational. Among balloons specifically, the most well known high-endurance project was Google Loon, using helium-filled high-altitude balloons to reach the stratosphere. Loon was ended in 2021.

Definitions

High-altitude long endurance (HALE)
High-altitude, long-endurance (HALE) aircraft are non-weaponized
MQ-9 Reaper or its variants.[1]
High-altitude platform station (HAPS)
defined by the
station on an object at an altitude of 20 to 50 km and at a specified, nominal, fixed point relative to the Earth" in its ITU Radio Regulations (RR).[2]
HAPS can also be the abbreviation for high-altitude pseudo-satellite.
See also:
Radiocommunication service, and Airship

Studies

Video of
NASA Helios
in flight

In 1983,

suborbital spacecraft.[3] In 1984 was published the Design of Long Endurance Unmanned Airplanes Incorporating Solar and fuel cell propulsion report.[4] In 1989, the Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil report proposed applications as a radio relay, for weather monitoring or cruise missile targeting.[5]

The NASA ERAST Program (Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology) was started in September 1994 to study high-altitude UAVs, and was terminated in 2003.[6] In July 1996, the USAF Strikestar 2025 report forecast HALE UAVs maintaining air occupation with 24 hours flights.[7] The Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office made demonstrations of long-endurance UAV craft.[7] In September 1996,

Israel Aircraft Industries detailed the design of a HALE UAV.[8]

In 2002, Preliminary reliability design of a solar-powered high-altitude very long endurance unmanned air vehicle was published. The European Union

CAPECON project aimed to develop HALE vehicles, while the Polish Academy of Sciences proposed its PW-114 concept that would fly at 20 km (66,000 ft) for 40 hours.[9]
geese to reduce the power required for the trailing aircraft by 79%, allowing smaller airframes to remain aloft indefinitely up to a latitude of 50°.[10]

Design

Wind profile variation with altitude from NASA, showing minimum wind speeds between 17 and 22 km (56,000 and 72,000 ft). Although absolute values will vary, the trends shown are similar for most locations.
Power
Power is required for continuous operation, limiting
electric batteries,[11] or in fuel cells.[12]
Altitude selection
Drag is reduced in the
Class A airspace ending at 60,000 ft (18,000 m).[11]
Comparison to satellites
A lower altitude covers more effectively a small region, implies a lower telecommunications link budget (a 34 dB advantage over a LEO, 66 dB over GEO), a lower power consumption, and a smaller round-trip delay.[15] Satellites are more expensive, take longer to deploy, and cannot be reasonably accessed for maintenance.[15] A satellite in the vacuum of space orbits due to its high speed generating a centrifugal force matching the gravity. Changing a satellite orbit requires expending its extremely limited fuel supply.
Further information on Satellites: Satellite

Applications

Atmospheric satellites could be used for

border security, maritime patrol and anti-piracy operations, disaster response, or agricultural observation.[11]
They could bring
Project Loon.[16]

Radiocommunication services
In Europe, scientists are considering HAPS to deliver high-speed connectivity to users, over areas of up to 400 km[clarify]. HAPS could deliver bandwidth and capacity similar to a broadband wireless access network, like WiMAX, over a coverage area similar to that of a satellite. Military communications can be improved in remote areas like in Afghanistan, where mountainous terrain interferes with communications signals.[17]
Surveillance and intelligence
The
infrared imagers; and is able to transmit its data in realtime.[18]
Real-time monitoring
An area could be monitored for
disaster management.[19]
Weather and environmental monitoring
For environment and weather monitoring,
Global Hawk UAVs to study Earth's atmosphere.[20]
Rocket launch
More than 90% of atmospheric matter is below the high-altitude platform, reducing
atmospheric drag for starting rockets: "As a rough estimate, a rocket that reaches an altitude of 20 km (66,000 ft) when launched from the ground will reach 100 km (54 nmi) if launched at an altitude of 20 km (66,000 ft) from a balloon."[21] Mass drivers have been proposed for launching to orbit.[22][page needed
]
Further information: Rockoon

Airplanes

SR-71 above 80,000 ft (24,000 m).[13]
The twin-turbofan powered Myasishchev M-55 reached an altitude of 21,360 m (70,080 ft) in 1993, a variant of the M-17 first flown in 1982, which reached 21,830 m (71,620 ft) in 1990.

Operational

USAF
service in 2001.
Grob G 520 Egrett
The manned Grob G 520 first flew on 24 June 1987 and was certified in 1991. Powered by a Honeywell TPE331 turboprop, it is 33 m (108 ft) wide, reached 16,329 m (53,574 ft), and can stay airborne during 13 hours.
Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk
The
MQ-4C Triton
.

Prototypes

Solar powered

See also: Solar-powered aircraft
NASA Pathfinder Plus
AeroVironment/NASA Pathfinder
The
HALSOL prototype, a 185 kg (410 lb), 30 m (98.4 ft) wide flying wing propelled by eight electric motors, first flew in June 1983.[26] It joined the NASA ERAST Program in late 1993 as the Pathfinder, and with solar cells covering the entire wing added later, it reached 50,500 ft (15,400 m) on September 11, 1995 and then 71,530 ft (21,800 m) in 1997.[12] The Pathfinder Plus had four sections of the Pathfinder wing out of five attached to a longer center section, increasing span to 121 ft (37 m), it flew in 1998 and reached 80,201 ft (24,445 m) on August 6 of that year.[12]
NASA Centurion
AeroVironment/
Helios Prototype
Flying in late 1998, the Centurion had a redesigned high-altitude airfoil and span increased to 206 ft (63 m), 14 motors, four underwing pods to carry batteries, systems and landing gear.
Helios Prototype, with a sixth 41 ft (12 m) wing section for a 247 ft (75 m) span, and a fifth landing gear and systems pod. It first flew in late 1999, solar panels were added in 2000 and it reached 96,863 ft (29,524 m) on August 13, 2001.[12] A production aircraft would fly for up to six months.[12] It broke up in flight in 2003.[27]
Airbus Zephyr
The
UK Ministry of Defence.[28] The UAVs are powered by solar cells, recharging batteries in daylight to stay aloft at night. The earliest model flew in December 2005.[29] In March 2013, the project was sold to Airbus Defence and Space.[30] The latest Zephyr 8/S model weighs 75 kg (165 lb), has a wingspan of 25 m (82 ft), and reached 23,200 m (76,100 ft).[31]
Solar Impulse
The first
Nagoya, Japan to Kalaeloa, Hawaii
over 117 h 52 min on 28 June 2015.
Titan Aerospace Solara
Founded in 2012 in
electric batteries for use at night.[11] Costing less than $2 million, they could carry a 70 lb (30 kg) payload for up to five years, limited by battery deterioration.[11] In 2013, Titan was flying two fifth-scale test models and aimed to flight test a full-sized prototype by 2014.[11] In March 2014, Facebook was interested in the company, led at the time by Eclipse Aviation founder Vern Raburn, for $60 million.[16] Google bought Titan Aerospace in April 2014,[32] managed to fly a prototype in May 2015 but it crashed within minutes and Titan Aerospace was shut down by early 2017.[33]
The KARI EAV-3 flew during 53 hours and up to 22 km (72,000 ft).
KARI EAV
The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) began developing its Electrical Aerial Vehicle (EAV) in 2010, after subscale demonstrators, its latest 20 m (66 ft) wide EAV-3 weighs 66 kg (146 lb) and is designed to fly for months; it flew up to 14.2 km (47,000 ft) in August 2015, during 53 hours and up to 22 km (72,000 ft) in August 2020.[34]
Astigan A3
UK mapping agency
Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, is developing the A3, a 38 m (125 ft) wingspan, 149 kg (330 lb) twin-boom solar-powered HAPS designed to stay aloft at 67,000 ft (20,000 m) for 90 days carrying a 25 kg (55 lb) payload.[35] OS owns 51% of UK company Astigan, led by Brian Jones, developing the A3 since 2014 with scale model test flights in 2015 and full-scale low-altitude flights in 2016.[35] High-altitude flights should begin in 2019, to complete tests in 2020 with a commercial introduction as for environmental monitoring, mapping, communications and security.[35] In March 2021, the project was ended as no strategic partner was found.[36]
Facebook Aquila
The Facebook Aquila UAV was a carbon fiber, solar-powered flying wing UAV spanning 132 ft (40 m) and weighing 935 lb (424 kg), designed to stay aloft at FL650 for 90 days.[27] It was designed and manufactured by UK company Ascenta for Facebook, to provide internet connectivity.[37] UAVs would use Laser communication between them and to ground stations.[38] On June 28, 2016, it took its first flight, during ninety minutes and reaching 2,150 ft (660 m), but a twenty-foot section of the righthand wing broke off during final approach.[39][40] It made another low-altitude test flights in 2017.[27] On June 27, 2018, Facebook announced it will halt the project and plan to have other companies build the drones.[41]
China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation
CASTC flew a 147 ft (45 m)-span solar-powered UAV to FL650 in a 15 hours test flight in July 2017.[27]
Lavochkin LA-252
Russia's Lavochkin design bureau is flight-testing the LA-252, an 82 ft (25 m)-span, 255 lb (116 kg) solar-powered UAV designed to stay aloft 100 days in the stratosphere.[27]
Mira Aerospace ApusDuo
A joint venture between Abu Dhabi-based Bayanat AI and American UAV manufacturer UAVOS, Mira Aerospace's ApusDuo HAPS has completed over 100 test flights across 3 continents, building off technologies first developed in 2014.[42][not specific enough to verify] With a wingspan of 14 m (46 ft), the unmanned ApusDuo 14 aircraft utilizes a flexible tandem wing design with high-efficiency solar cells to fly continuously for months at altitudes up to 19,000 m (62,000 ft), carrying payloads up to 6 kg (13 lb). During a test flight in Rwanda in October 2023, Mira Aerospace became the first company to successfully deliver 5G connectivity from a fixed-wing HAPS autonomous aircraft in the stratosphere.[43]
AeroVironment HAPSMobile
smartphones and wireless broadband communications.[45]
BAE Systems PHASA-35
Designed by Prismatic Ltd., now
Woomera Test Range in South Australia; it should fly its 15 kg (33 lb) payload at around 70,000 ft for days or weeks.[46]
Swift Engineering SULE
The Swift Engineering's Swift Ultra Long Endurance SULE completed its maiden flight partnership with NASA's Ames Research Center in July 2020.[47] Designed to operate at 70,000 ft (21,000 m), the persistent 72 ft (22 m) UAV weighs less than 180 lb (82 kg) and can carry up to 15 lb (6.8 kg) payloads.[47]
Aurora Odysseus
carbon fibre aircraft weigh less than 880 kg (1,940 lb) and can carry a 25kg (55lb) payload.[49] It was designed to stay above 65,000 ft (20,000 m) up to three months at latitudes up to 20°.[50] Its first flight was indefinitely delayed by July 2019.[48]
HAL CATS Infinity
better source needed
]
Solar-powered HAPS
Model First flight Span Weight Payload Altitude Endurance
(dd-hh:mm)		 Status
AeroVironment Pathfinder 1993-T4 98.4 ft (29.5 m) 560 lb (252 kg) 100 lb (45 kg) 71,530 ft (21,800 m) 00-12:00
AeroVironment Pathfinder plus 1998 121 ft (36.3 m) 700 lb (315 kg) 150 lb (67,5 kg) 80,201 ft (24,445 m)
AeroVironment
Helios
 1999-09-08 247 ft (75 m) 2,048 lb (929 kg) 726 lb (329 kg) 96,863 ft (29,524 m) goal: > 1-00:00 2003 crash
Airbus Zephyr 2005-12 82 ft (25 m) 165 lb (75 kg) 11 lb (5 kg) 76,100 ft (23,200 m) 64-00:00 2024 planned intro.
Titan Aerospace Solara 2015-05-01 160 ft (50 m) 70 lb (30 kg) 520 ft (160 m) 00-00:04 2017 shut down
KARI EAV-3 2015-08 66 ft (20 m) 146 lb (66 kg) 72,000 ft (22 km) 02-05:00
UK OS Astigan A3 2016 125 ft (38 m) 330 lb (149 kg) 55 lb (25 kg) goal: 67,000 ft (20,000 m) goal: 90-00:00 2021 project end
Facebook Aquila 2016-06-28 132 ft (40 m) 935 lb (424 kg) 2,150 ft (660 m) 00-01:30 2018 project halt
CASTC 2017-07 147 ft (45 m) 65,000 ft (20,000 m) 00-15:00
Lavochkin LA-252 2017-T4 82 ft (25 m) 255 lb (116 kg) goal: stratosphere goal: 100-00:00
Mira Aerospace's ApusDuo 2018-10 46 ft (14 m) 95 lb (43 kg) 7.9 lb (3.6 kg) 54,744 ft (16,686 m) 00-10:30
AeroVironment HAPSMobile 2019-09-11 256 ft (78 m) 62,500 ft (19.1 km) 00-20:00
BAE Systems PHASA-35 2020-02 115 ft (35 m) 330 lb (150 kg) 33 lb (15 kg) goal: 70,000 ft 03-00:00
Swift Engineering SULE 2020-07 72 ft (22 m) 180 lb (82 kg) 15 lb (6.8 kg) goal: 70,000 ft (21,000 m)
HAL CATS Infinity 2022-10-19 39 ft (12 m) 51 lb (23 kg) 9,800 ft (3 km) 00-08:30 subscale testing

Hydrocarbon fueled

The Ryan YQM-98 R-Tern of the Compass Cope program first flew on 17 August 1974 and was designed to fly up to 70,000 ft (21,340 m) and during 30 hours
USAF Compass Dwell and Compass Cope
The USAF Compass Dwell UAV program saw the flight of the LTV XQM-93 in February 1970, based on a turboprop-powered Schweizer SGS 2-32 sailplane and designed to fly 24 hours and to reach 50,000 ft (15,240 m); and the Martin Marietta Model 845 in April 1972, based on a piston engine-powered Schweizer SGS 1-34 sailplane, designed to reach 40,000 feet (12,000 m) and capable to fly 28 hours. The following Compass Cope program saw the Boeing YQM-94 B-Gull first flight on 28 July 1973: powered by a General Electric J97 turbojet, it was designed to fly 30 hours up to 70,000 ft (21,340 m), and managed to fly during 17.4 hours and up to 55,000 feet (16,800 m); the competing Ryan YQM-98 R-Tern was powered by a Garrett ATF3 turbofan, first flew on 17 August 1974 and was designed to fly during 30 hours.
Boeing Condor
The Boeing Condor first flew on October 9, 1988, it reached 67,028 ft (20,430 m) and stayed aloft for nearly 60 hours; powered by two 175 hp (130 kW) piston engines, the 200 ft (61 m) wide UAV had a 20,300 lb (9,200 kg) gross weight and was designed to reach 73,000 ft (22,250 m) and to fly for more than a week.[52]
Aurora Perseus and Theseus
Built by
aspect ratio.[53] A larger follow-on powered by two Rotax 912 piston engines, the Theseus first flew on May 24, 1996. Designed to fly during 50 hours up to 65,000 ft (20,000 m), the 5,500 (2.5 t) maximum weight UAV was 140 ft (42.7 m) wide and could carry a 340 kg (750 lb) payload.[6]
Grob Strato 2C
Designed to fly at 24,000 m (78,700 ft) and for up to 48 hours, the manned Grob Strato 2C first flew on 31 March 1995 and reached 18,552 m (60,897 ft). The 56.5 m (185 ft) wide aircraft was powered by two 300 kW (400 hp) piston engines turbocharged by a PW127 turboprop as the gas generator.
The piston-powered General Atomics Altus II first flew on May 1, 1996, and reached 57,300 ft (17,500 m)
General Atomics ALTUS
Part of the
General Atomics Altair.[54]
Scaled Composites Proteus
The manned Scaled Composites Proteus operates at altitudes of 19.8 km (65,000 ft), while carrying a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) payload.[55] Powered by two Williams FJ44 turbofans, it had tandem wings with a 17 m (55 ft) front wing and a wider 24 m (78 ft) wide back wing for a maximum takeoff weight of 6.6 t (14,500 lb), could cruise at 450 km/h (240 kn) and stay 22 hours at 925 km (500 nmi) of its base.[6]
Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer
The manned GlobalFlyer, built by Scaled Composites, was designed to fly around the world. Powered by a single Williams FJ44, the 114 ft (35 m) wide aircraft can weigh up to 22,100 lb (10 t). Having a 50,700 ft (15,450 m) ceiling, it flew for 76 hours and 45 minutes in February 2006.
Aurora Flight Sciences Orion
The initial Boeing/
MALE UAV burning jet fuel with an increased gross weight to 11,000 lb (5,000 kg), designed to fly at 20,000 ft (6,100 m) during 120 hours (five days) with a 1,000lb payload, or a week with a smaller one; it made its first flight in August 2013 and flew during 80 hours in December 2015, landing with enough fuel for 37 hours more.[56]
Shenyang Aircraft Corporation Divine Eagle
The
twin boom, twin tail aircraft has a canard wing and wind tunnel test were up to a ceiling of 25 km (82,000 ft) and Mach 0.8.[58]

Hydrogen fueled

The hydrogen-powered Boeing Phantom Eye should have reached 65,000 ft (19,800 m) during four days.
AeroVironment Global Observer
Fueled by liquid hydrogen and designed to fly at up to 65,000 ft (20,000 m) for up to 7 days, the AeroVironment Global Observer first flew on 5 August 2010.[59] After a crash in April 2011, the Pentagon shelved the project.[60]
Boeing Phantom Eye
An evolution of the
piston engines running on liquid hydrogen, the 150 ft (46 m) wide UAV has a gross takeoff weight of 9,800 lbs (4.4 t) and can carry a 450 lb (200 kg) payload.[61] It cruises at 150 kn (280 km/h), can reach 65,000 ft (19,800 m) and have a four days endurance.[61] A full size variant is designed to carry a 2,000 lb (910 kg) payload during ten days.[61] In August 2016, the Phantom Eye demonstrator was transferred to the Air Force Flight Test Museum.[62]
Stratospheric Platforms
UK Stratospheric Platforms, created in 2014, went public on 19 October 2020; after flight trials of a 4G/5G relay on a Grob G 520 at 45,000 ft (14,000 m), the start-up is developing a hydrogen-fuel cell-powered HAPS UAV built by Scaled Composites, with a wingspan of 60 m (200 ft), that would fly at 60,000 ft (18,000 m) for nine-days with a payload of 140 kg (310 lb).[63]

Airships

Unmanned Stratospheric airships are designed to operate at very high 60,000 to 75,000 feet (18.3 to 22.9 km) altitudes during weeks, months or years.[64] Subjected to

ultraviolet damage, ozone corrosion and challenging station keeping, they can be solar-powered with energy storage for the night.[64]

The first stratospheric powered airship flight took place in 1969, reaching 70,000 feet (21 km) for 2 hours with a 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms) payload.[65] By August 2002, US company

Worldwide Aeros was building a stratospheric demonstrator for the Korea Aerospace Research Institute, as a part the South Korean HAA development program.[66]
By April 2004, stratospheric airships were being developed in USA, UK, Canada, Korea and Japan.[67] In May 2004, the
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency shown its test airship in Taiki, Hokkaido, a part of its Stratosphere Platform Project.[68]

SwRI HiSentinel
On December 4, 2005, a team led by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), sponsored by the Army Space and Missile Defense Command (ASMDC), successfully demonstrated powered flight of the HiSentinel stratospheric airship at an altitude of 74,000 feet (23 km).[69]
Integrated Sensor Is Structure
project
Integrated Sensor Is Structure
The USAF
early warning against cruise missiles at up to 600 km (320 nmi) or enemy combatants at up to 300 km (160 nmi).[13]
Lockheed-Martin HAA
The United States Department of Defense
orbital station keeping as a surveillance aircraft
platform, telecommunications relay, or a weather observer. Launch was originally proposed in 2008, the production aircraft would be 500 ft (150 m) long and 150 ft (46 m) in diameter. Powered by solar cells, it would stay in the air for up to one month and was intended to survey a 600 mi (970 km) diameter of land.
Lockheed-Martin HALE-D
On July 27, 2011, the "High Altitude Long Endurance-Demonstrator" (HALE-D) subscale demonstrator was launched on a test flight.[72] HALE-D had a 500,000 cu ft (14,000 m3) volume, was 240 ft (73 m) long and 70 ft (21 m) wide, had 15 kW (20 hp) solar cells charging 40 kWh Li-ion batteries and 2 kW (2.7 hp) electric motors to cruise at 20 kn (37 km/h) TAS at 60,000 ft (18,000 m) with a 50 lb (23 kg) payload during 15 days.[73] At 32,000 ft (9,800 m) a problem with the helium levels prevented it and the flight was terminated.[74] It descended and crashed in a Pittsburgh area forest.[75] Two days after, it was destroyed by a fire before its recovery.[76]
Lindstrand HALE airship
electrolyser would fill H2 and O2 tanks, to be converted back to water by a 150kW fuel cell. A 80 kW (110 hp) motor would allow a 24 m/s (47 kn) maximum speed.[77]
Stratobus airship
Thales Alenia Stratobus
Thales Alenia Space develops the Stratobus unmanned, solar-powered stratospheric airship, 377 ft (115 m) long and weighting 15,000 lb (6,800 kg) including a 550 lb (250 kg) payload, it is designed for a five-year mission with annual servicing and a prototype was planned for late 2020.[27]
H-Aero
better source needed
]

Balloons

Main article:
Geostationary balloon satellite
Project Loon
balloon

A geostationary balloon satellite (GBS) flies in the

density is at sea level
. A GBS could be used to provide
broadband Internet access over a large area.[80]
One prior project was the
Project Loon, which envisioned using helium-filled high-altitude balloons
.

Rotorcraft

Boeing A160 Hummingbird
The Boeing A160 Hummingbird is a rotorcraft produced by Boeing.[81] First flown in 2002, the program had goals of a 24-hour endurance, and 30,000 ft (9,100 m) altitude, but was abandoned in December 2012.

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Further reading

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