History of nuclear power
This is a history of nuclear power as realized through the first artificial fission of atoms that would lead to the Manhattan Project and, eventually, to using nuclear fission to generate electricity.
Origins
In 1932, physicists
In 1938, German chemists
First nuclear reactor
In the United States, where Fermi and Szilárd had both emigrated, the discovery of the nuclear chain reaction led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, the
In August 1945, the first widely distributed account of nuclear energy, the pocketbook The Atomic Age,
In the same month, with the end of the war, Seaborg and others would file hundreds of initially classified
Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on 20 December 1951, at the
In 1953, American PresidentThe F-1 (from "First Physical Reactor") was a research reactor operated by the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow, Russia. When started on 25 December 1946, it became the first nuclear reactor in Europe to achieve a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.[20]
Early years
The first organization to develop nuclear power was the
On 27 June 1954, the
The U.S.
In 1957
The first major accident at a nuclear reactor occurred at the 3 MW
Development and early opposition to nuclear power
- PWR: 277 (63.2%)
- BWR: 80 (18.3%)
- GCR: 15 (3.4%)
- PHWR: 49 (11.2%)
- LWGR: 15 (3.4%)
- FBR: 2 (0.5%)
The total global installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1
In 1972 Alvin Weinberg, co-inventor of the light water reactor design (the most common nuclear reactors today) was fired from his job at
Similar to the earlier BORAX reactor safety experiments, conducted by Argonne National Laboratory,[43] in 1976 Idaho National Laboratory began a test program focused on LWR reactors under various accident scenarios, with the aim of understanding the event progression and mitigating steps necessary to respond to a failure of one or more of the disparate systems, with much of the redundant back-up safety equipment and nuclear regulations drawing from these series of destructive testing investigations.[44]
During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation)
The 1973 oil crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation (39%[46] and 73% respectively) to invest in nuclear power.[47] The French plan, known as the
Some local
Globally during the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average.[62]
Regulations, pricing and accidents
In the early 1970s, the increased public hostility to nuclear power in the United States lead the
Utility proposals in the U.S for nuclear generating stations, peaked at 52 in 1974, fell to 12 in 1976 and have never recovered,[67] in large part due to the pressure-group litigation strategy, of launching lawsuits against each proposed U.S construction proposal, keeping private utilities tied up in court for years, one of which having reached the supreme court in 1978 (see Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.[68] With permission to build a nuclear station in the U.S. eventually taking longer than in any other industrial country, the spectre facing utilities of having to pay interest on large construction loans while the anti-nuclear movement used the legal system to produce delays, increasingly made the viability of financing construction, less certain.[67] By the close of the 1970s it became clear that nuclear power would not grow nearly as dramatically as once believed.
Over
According to some commentators, the 1979
Among American engineers, the cost increases from implementing the regulatory changes that resulted from the TMI accident were, when eventually finalized, only a few percent of total construction costs for new reactors, primarily relating to the prevention of safety systems from being turned off. With the most significant engineering result of the TMI accident, the recognition that better operator training was needed and that the existing
The already slowing rate of new construction along with the shutdown in the 1980s of two existing demonstration nuclear power stations in the Tennessee Valley, United States, when they could not economically meet the NRC's new tightened standards, shifted electricity generation to coal-fired power plants.[75] In 1977, following the first oil shock, U.S. President Jimmy Carter made a speech calling the energy crisis the "moral equivalent of war" and prominently supporting nuclear power. However, nuclear power could not compete with cheap oil and gas, particularly after public opposition and regulatory hurdles made new nuclear prohibitively expensive.[76]
In 1982, amongst a backdrop of ongoing protests directed at the construction of the first commercial scale
Chernobyl disaster
The Chernobyl disaster occurred on Saturday 26 April 1986, at the No. 4 reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR.[78] It is considered as the worst nuclear disaster in history both in terms of cost and casualties.[79] The initial emergency response, together with later decontamination of the environment, ultimately involved more than 500,000 personnel and cost an estimated 18 billion Soviet rubles—roughly US$68 billion in 2019, adjusted for inflation.[80][81]
According to some commentators, the Chernobyl disaster played a major part in the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in many other countries.[53] Unlike the Three Mile Island accident the much more serious Chernobyl accident did not increase regulations or engineering changes affecting Western reactors; because the RBMK design, which lacks safety features such as "robust" containment buildings, was only used in the Soviet Union.[82] Over 10 RBMK reactors are still in use today. However, changes were made in both the RBMK reactors themselves (use of a safer enrichment of uranium) and in the control system (preventing safety systems being disabled), amongst other things, to reduce the possibility of a similar accident.[83] Russia now largely relies upon, builds and exports a variant of the PWR, the VVER, with over 20 in use today.
An international organization to promote safety awareness and the professional development of operators in nuclear facilities, the
Numerous countries, including Austria (1978), Sweden (1980) and Italy (1987) (influenced by Chernobyl) have voted in referendums to oppose or phase out nuclear power.
Nuclear renaissance
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
In the early 2000s, the nuclear industry was expecting a nuclear renaissance, an increase in the construction of new reactors, due to concerns about carbon dioxide emissions.[85] However, in 2009, Petteri Tiippana, the director of nuclear power plant division in the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, told the BBC that it was difficult to deliver a Generation III reactor project on schedule because builders were not used to working to the exacting standards required on nuclear construction sites, since so few new reactors had been built in recent years.[86]
The
In 2018 the
Fukushima Daiichi disaster
Following the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011, one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded, and a subsequent tsunami off the coast of Japan, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant suffered three core meltdowns due to failure of the emergency cooling system for lack of electricity supply. This resulted in the most serious nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster.
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident prompted a re-examination of
In 2011 the International Energy Agency halved its prior estimate of new generating capacity to be built by 2035.[98][99] Nuclear power generation had the biggest ever fall year-on-year in 2012, with nuclear power plants globally producing 2,346 TWh of electricity, a drop of 7% from 2011. This was caused primarily by the majority of Japanese reactors remaining offline that year and the permanent closure of eight reactors in Germany.[100]
Post-Fukushima
The Associated Press and Reuters reported in 2011 the suggestion that the safety and survival of the younger Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, the closest reactor facility to the epicenter and on the coast, demonstrate that it is possible for nuclear facilities to withstand the greatest natural disasters. The Onagawa plant was also said to show that nuclear power can retain public trust, with the surviving residents of the town of Onagawa taking refuge in the gymnasium of the nuclear facility following the destruction of their town.[101][102]
In February 2012, the U.S. NRC approved the construction of 2 reactors at the Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, the first approval in 30 years.[103][104]
In August 2015, following 4 years of near zero fission-electricity generation, Japan began restarting its nuclear reactors, after safety upgrades were completed, beginning with Sendai Nuclear Power Plant.[105]
By 2015, the IAEA's outlook for nuclear energy had become more promising. "Nuclear power is a critical element in limiting greenhouse gas emissions," the agency noted, and "the prospects for nuclear energy remain positive in the medium to long term despite a negative impact in some countries in the aftermath of the [Fukushima-Daiichi] accident...it is still the second-largest source worldwide of low-carbon electricity. And the 72 reactors under construction at the start of last year were the most in 25 years."[106] As of 2015[update], the global trend was for new nuclear power stations coming online to be balanced by the number of old plants being retired.[107] Eight new grid connections were completed by China in 2015.[108][109]
In 2016, the
In 2015, the Japanese government committed to the aim of restarting its fleet of 40 reactors by 2030 after safety upgrades, and to finish the construction of the Generation III Ōma Nuclear Power Plant.[111] This would mean that approximately 20% of electricity would come from nuclear power by 2030. As of 2018, some reactors have restarted commercial operation following inspections and upgrades with new regulations.[112] While South Korea has a large nuclear power industry, the new government in 2017, influenced by a vocal anti-nuclear movement,[113] committed to halting nuclear development after the completion of the facilities presently under construction.[114][115][116]
The bankruptcy of Westinghouse in March 2017 due to US$9 billion of losses from the halting of construction at Virgil C. Summer Nuclear Generating Station, in the U.S. is considered an advantage for eastern companies, for the future export and design of nuclear fuel and reactors.[117]
In 2016, the
Current prospects
Zero-emission nuclear power is an important part of the climate change mitigation effort. Under IEA Sustainable Development Scenario by 2030 nuclear power and CCUS would have generated 3900 TWh globally while wind and solar 8100 TWh with the ambition to achieve net-zero CO2 emissions by 2070.[122] In order to achieve this goal on average 15 GWe of nuclear power should have been added annually on average.[123] As of 2019 over 60 GW in new nuclear power plants was in construction, mostly in China, Russia, Korea, India and UAE.[123] Many countries in the world are considering Small Modular Reactors with one in Russia connected to the grid in 2020.
Countries with at least one nuclear power plant in planning phase include Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Finland, Hungary, India, Kazakhstan, Poland, Saudi Arabia and Uzbekistan.[123]
The future of nuclear power varies greatly between countries, depending on government policies. Some countries, most notably, Germany, have adopted policies of nuclear power phase-out. At the same time, some Asian countries, such as China[120] and India,[124] have committed to rapid expansion of nuclear power. In other countries, such as the United Kingdom[125] and the United States, nuclear power is planned to be part of the energy mix together with renewable energy.
Nuclear energy may be one solution to providing clean power while also reversing the impact fossil fuels have had on our climate.[126] These plants would capture carbon dioxide and create a clean energy source with zero emissions, making a carbon-negative process. Scientists propose that 1.8 million lives have already been saved by replacing fossil fuel sources with nuclear power.[127]
As of 2019[update] the cost of extending plant lifetimes is competitive with other electricity generation technologies, including new solar and wind projects.[128] In the United States, licenses of almost half of the operating nuclear reactors have been extended to 60 years.[129] The U.S. NRC and the U.S. Department of Energy have initiated research into
Following the
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