Lenition
Sound change and alternation |
---|
Fortition |
Dissimilation |
In
An example of synchronic lenition is found in most varieties of
In some languages, lenition has been grammaticalized into a
The opposite of lenition, fortition, a sound change that makes a consonant "stronger", is less common, but Breton and Cornish have "hard mutation" forms which represent fortition.
Types
Lenition involves changes in manner of articulation, sometimes accompanied by small changes in place of articulation. There are two main lenition pathways: opening and sonorization. In both cases, a stronger sound becomes a weaker one. Lenition can be seen as a movement on the sonority hierarchy from less sonorous to more sonorous, or on a strength hierarchy from stronger to weaker.
In examples below, a greater-than sign indicates that one sound changes to another. The notation [t] > [ts] means that [t] changes to [ts].
The sound change of palatalization sometimes involves lenition.
Lenition includes the loss of a feature, such as deglottalization, in which glottalization or ejective articulation is lost: [kʼ] or [kˀ] > [k].
The tables below show common sound changes involved in lenition. In some cases, lenition may skip one of the sound changes. The change voiceless stop > fricative is more common than the series of changes voiceless stop > affricate > fricative.
Opening
In the opening type of lenition, the articulation becomes more open with each step. Opening lenition involves several sound changes: shortening of double consonants,
- [tt] or [tː] > [t] (shortening, example in Greek)
- [t] > [ts] (affrication, for example Latin: terra to Aromanian: tsarã)
- [t] or [ts] > [s] (spirantization, example in Gilbertese language)
- [t] > [ʔ]; [s] > [h] (debuccalization, example in English or Spanish)
- [t], [ts], [s], [ʔ], [h] > ∅ (elision)
geminated stop | → | stop | → | affricate | → | fricative | → | placeless approximant | → | no sound |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
original sound | → | degemination | → | affrication | → | spirantization (deaffrication) |
→ | debuccalization | → | elision |
[pp] or [ppʰ] | → | [p] or [pʰ] | → | [pɸ] | → | [ɸ] | → | [h] | → | (zero) |
→ | [pf] | → | [f] | → | ||||||
[tt] or [ttʰ] | → | [t] or [tʰ] | → | [tθ] | → | [θ] | → | |||
→ | [ts] | → | [s] | → | ||||||
[kk] or [kkʰ] | → | [k] or [kʰ] | → | [kx] | → | [x] | → |
Sonorization
The sonorization type involves voicing. Sonorizing lenition involves several sound changes: voicing, approximation, and vocalization.[clarification needed]
- [t] > [d] (voicing, example in Korean)
- [d] > [ð] (approximation, example in Spanish)
- [d] > [i] (vocalization)
Sonorizing lenition occurs especially often intervocalically (between vowels). In this position, lenition can be seen as a type of
stop | → | voiced stop | → | continuant (fricative, trill, etc.) |
→ | approximant | → | no sound | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
original sound | → | voicing (sonorization) |
→ | spirantization, trilling | → | approximation | → | elision | ||||
[p] | → | [b] | → | [β] | → | [β̞] | → | (zero) | ||||
→ | [v] | → | [ʋ] | → | ||||||||
→ | [w] | → | ||||||||||
[t] | → | [d] | → | [ð] | → | [ð̞] | → | |||||
→ | [z] | → | [ɹ] | → | ||||||||
→ | [r] | → | ||||||||||
[k] | → | [ɡ] | → | [ɣ] | → | [ɰ] | → | |||||
→ | [j], [w] | → |
Some of the sounds generated by lenition are often subsequently "normalized" into related but cross-linguistically more common sounds. An example would be the changes [b] → [β] → [v] and [d] → [ð] → [z]. Such normalizations correspond to diagonal movements down and to the right in the above table. In other cases, sounds are lenited and normalized at the same time; examples would be direct changes [b] → [v] or [d] → [z].
Vocalization
lateral approximant | → | semivowel | → | vowel |
---|---|---|---|---|
[l] | → | [w] [ɰ] |
→ | [u] [o] |
→ | [j] | → | [i] |
Mixed
Sometimes a particular example of lenition mixes the opening and sonorization pathways. For example, [kʰ] may spirantize or open to [x], then voice or sonorize to [ɣ].
Lenition can be seen in Canadian and American English, where /t/ and /d/ soften to a tap [ɾ] (flapping) when not in initial position and followed by an unstressed vowel. For example, both rate and raid plus the suffix -er are pronounced [ˈɹeɪ̯ɾɚ]. In many British English dialects, a different lenition that affects only [t] takes place: [t] > [ʔ] (see T-glottalization). The Italian of Central and Southern Italy has a number of lenitions, the most widespread of which is the deaffrication of /t͡ʃ/ to [ʃ] between vowels: post-pausal cena [ˈt͡ʃeːna] 'dinner' but post-vocalic la cena [laˈʃeːna] 'the dinner'; the name Luciano, although structurally /luˈt͡ʃano/, is normally pronounced [luˈʃaːno]. In Tuscany, /d͡ʒ/ likewise is realized [ʒ] between vowels, and in typical speech of Central Tuscany, the voiceless stops /p t k/ in the same position are pronounced respectively [ɸ θ x/h], as in /la kasa/ → [laˈhaːsa] 'the house', /buko/ → [ˈbuːho] 'hole'.
Effects
Diachronic
A similar development occurred in the Celtic languages, where non-geminate intervocalic consonants were converted into their corresponding weaker counterparts through lenition (usually stops into fricatives but also laterals and trills into weaker laterals and taps), and voiceless stops became voiced. For example, Indo-European intervocalic *-t- in *teu̯teh₂ "people" resulted in
An example of historical lenition in the
Although actually a much more profound change encompassing syllable restructuring, simplification of
Synchronic
Allophonic
All varieties of
/b/ | → [β]: baca [ˈbaka] "cow" → sa baca [sa ˈβaka] "the cow" |
/d/ | → [ð]: domu [ˈdɔmu] "house" → sa domu [sa ˈðɔmu] "the house" |
/ɡ/ | → [ɣ]: gupu [ˈɡupu] "ladle" → su gupu [su ˈɣupu] "the ladle" |
A series of synchronic lenitions involving opening, or loss of occlusion, rather than voicing is found for post-vocalic /p t k/ in many Tuscan dialects of Central Italy. Stereotypical Florentine, for example, has the /k/ of /kasa/ as [ˈkaːsa] casa 'house' in a post-pause realization, [iŋˈkaːsa] in casa 'in (the) house' post-consonant, but [laˈhaːsa] la casa 'the house' intervocalically. Word-internally, the normal realization is also [h]: /ˈbuko/ buco 'hole' → [ˈbuːho].
Grammatical
In the
- Classical Gaelican fear [fʲeɾ] → Modern Gaelic am fear [fɛɾ]
- Proto-Celtic *(s)indā benā IPA: [vʲenaː] → Old Irish ind ben [vʲen] → Middle Irish in ben [vʲen] → Classical Gaelic an bhean [vʲen] → Modern Gaelic a' bhean [vɛn]
Synchronic lenition in Scottish Gaelic affects almost all consonants (except /l̪ˠ/, which has lost its lenited counterpart in most areas).
Spirantization | ||
/p/ | → /v/ | bog /pok/ "soft" → glé bhog /kleː vok/ "very soft" |
/pj/ | → /vj/ (before a back vowel) | beò /pjɔː/ 'alive' → glé bheò /kleː vjɔː/ 'very alive' |
/kʰ/ | → /x/ | cas /kʰas̪/ "steep" → glé chas /kleː xas̪/ "very steep" |
/kʰʲ/ | → /ç/ | ciùin /kʰʲuːɲ/ "quiet" → glé chiùin /kleː çuːɲ/ "very quiet" |
/t̪/ | → /ɣ/ | dubh /t̪uh/ "black" → glé dhubh /kleː ɣuh/ "very black" |
/tʲ/ | → /ʝ/ | deiseil /tʲeʃal/ "ready" → glé dheiseil /kleː ʝeʃal/ "very ready" |
/k/ | → /ɣ/ | garbh /kaɾav/ "rough" → glé gharbh /kleː ɣaɾav/ "very rough" |
/kʲ/ | → /ʝ/ | geur /kʲiaɾ/ "sharp" → glé gheur /kleː ʝiaɾ/ "very sharp" |
/m/ | → /v/ | maol /mɯːl̪ˠ/ "bald" → glé mhaol /kleː vɯːl̪ˠ/ "very bald" |
/mj/ | → /vj/ (before a back vowel) | meallta /mjaul̪ˠt̪ə/ "deceitful" → glé mheallta /kleː vjaul̪ˠt̪ə/ "very deceitful" |
/pʰ/ | → /f/ | pongail /pʰɔŋɡal/ "exact" → glé phongail /kleː fɔŋɡal/ "very exact" |
/pʰj/ | → /fj/ (before a back vowel) | peallagach /pʰjal̪ˠakəx/ "shaggy" → glé pheallagach /kleː fjal̪ˠakəx/ "very shaggy" |
Loss of secondary articulation | ||
/n̪ˠ/ | → /n/ | nàdarra /n̪ˠaːt̪ərˠə/ "natural" → glé nàdarra /kleː naːt̪ərˠə/ "very natural" |
/rˠ/ | → /ɾ/ | rag /rˠak/ "stiff" → glé rag /kleː ɾak/ "very stiff" |
/l̪ˠ/ | → /lˠ/ | lag /l̪ˠak/ "weak" → glé lag /kleː lˠak/ "very weak" (in Harris Gaelic only)
|
Debuccalization | ||
/s̪/ | → /h/ | sona /s̪ɔnə/ "happy" → glé shona /kleː hɔnə/ "very happy" |
/ʃ/ | → /h/ | seasmhach /ʃes̪vəx/ "constant" → glé sheasmhach /kleː hes̪vəx/ "very constant" |
/ʃ/ | → /hj/ (before a back vowel) | seòlta /ʃɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/ "sly" → glé sheòlta /kleː hjɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/ "very sly" |
/t̪ʰ/ | → /h/ | tana /t̪ʰanə/ "thin" → glé thana /kleː hanə/ "very thin" |
/tʰʲ/ | → /h/ | tinn /tʲiːɲ/ "ill" → glé thinn /kleː hiːɲ/ "very ill" |
/tʰʲ/ | → /hj/ (before a back vowel) | teann /tʰʲaun̪ˠ/ "tight" → glé theann /kleː hjaun̪ˠ/ "very tight" |
Elision | ||
/f/ | → Ø | fann /faun̪ˠ/ "faint" → glé fhann /kleː aun̪ˠ/ "very faint" |
/fj/ | → /j/ (before a back vowel) | feòrachail /fjɔːɾəxal/ "inquisitive" → glé fheòrachail /kleː jɔːɾəxal/ "very inquisitive" |
Reduction of place markedness | ||
In the modern Goidelic languages, grammatical lenition also triggers the reduction of markedness in the place of articulation of coronal sonorants (l, r, and n sounds). In Scottish Gaelic, /n/ and /l/ are the weak counterparts of palatal /ɲ/ and /ʎ/.
| ||
/ɲ/ | → /n/ | neulach /ɲial̪ˠəx/ "cloudy" → glé neulach /kleː nial̪ˠəx/ "very cloudy" |
/ʎ/ | → /l/ | leisg /ʎeʃkʲ/ "lazy" → glé leisg /kleː leʃkʲ/ "very lazy" |
Blocked lenition
Some languages which have lenition have in addition complex rules affecting situations where lenition might be expected to occur but does not, often those involving
- d n t l s (usually called the dental group in spite of the non-dental nature of the palatals)
- c g (usually called the velar group)
- b f m p (usually called the labial group)
In a position where lenition is expected due to the grammatical environment, lenition tends to be blocked if there are two adjacent homorganic consonants across the word boundary. For example:[5]
- aon 'one' (which causes lenition) → aon chas 'one leg' vs aon taigh 'one house' (not aon *thaigh)
- air an 'on the' (which causes lenition) → air a' chas mhòr 'on the big leg' vs air an taigh donn "on the brown house" (not air an *thaigh *dhonn)
In modern Scottish Gaelic this rule is only productive in the case of dentals but not the other two groups for the vast majority of speakers. It also does not affect all environments any more. For example, while aon still invokes the rules of blocked lenition, a noun followed by an adjective generally no longer does so. Hence:[5]
- ad "hat" (a feminine noun causing lenition) → ad dhonn "a brown hat" (although some highly conservative speakers retain ad donn)
- caileag "girl" (a feminine noun causing lenition) → caileag ghlic "a smart girl" (not caileag *glic)
There is a significant number of frozen forms involving the other two groups (labials and velars) and environments as well, especially in surnames and place names:[5]
- MacGumaraid 'Montgomery' (mac + Gumaraid) vs MacDhòmhnaill 'MacDonald (mac + Dòmhnall)
- Caimbeul 'Campbell' (cam 'crooked' + beul 'mouth') vs Camshron 'Cameron' (cam + sròn 'nose')
- sgian-dubh 'Sgian-dubh' (sgian 'knife' + dubh '1 black 2 hidden'; sgian as a feminine noun today would normally cause lenition on a following adjective) vs sgian dhubh "a black knife" (i.e., a common knife which just happens to be black)
Though rare, in some instances the rules of blocked lenition can be invoked by lost historical consonants, for example, in the case of the past-tense
- bu dona am biadh "bad was the food" versus bu mhòr am beud 'great was the pity
In Brythonic languages, only fossilized vestiges of lenition blocking occur, for example in Welsh nos da 'good night' lenition is blocked
Outside Celtic, in Spanish orthographic b d g are retained as [b, d, ɡ] following nasals rather than their normal lenited forms [β, ð, ɣ].
Orthography
In the modern Celtic languages, lenition of the "fricating" type is usually denoted by adding an h to the lenited letter. In Welsh, for example, c, p, and t change into ch, ph, th as a result of the so-called "aspirate mutation" (carreg, "stone" → ei charreg "her stone"). An exception is
Voicing lenition is represented by a simple letter switch in the
Although nasalization as a feature also occurs in most Scottish Gaelic dialects, it is not shown in the orthography on the whole, as it is synchronic (the result of certain types of nasals affecting a following sound), rather than the diachronic Irish type sonorization (after historic nasals). For example taigh [t̪ʰɤj] "house" → an taigh [ən̪ˠˈd̪ʱɤj] "the house".[3][7]
Consonant gradation
The phenomenon of consonant gradation in Finnic languages is also a form of lenition.
An example with
If a language has no obstruents other than voiceless stops, other sounds are encountered, as in Finnish, where the lenited grade is represented by
Fortition
Fortition is the opposite of lenition: a consonant mutation in which a consonant changes from one considered weak to one considered strong. Fortition is less frequent than lenition in the languages of the world, but word-initial and word-final fortition is fairly frequent.
Italian, for example, presents numerous regular examples of word-initial fortition both historically (Lat. Januarius with initial /j/ > gennaio, with [dʒ]) and synchronically (e.g., /ˈkaza/ "house, home" → [ˈkaːza] but /a ˈkaza/ "at home" → [aˈkːaːza]).
Catalan is among numerous Romance languages with diachronic word-final devoicing (frigidus > */ˈfɾɛd/ > fred [ˈfɾɛt]. Fortition also occurs in Catalan for /b d ɡ/ in consonant clusters with a lateral consonant (Lat. populus > poble [ˈpɔbːɫə] or [ˈpɔpːɫə].
Word-medially, /lː/ is subject to fortition in numerous Romance languages, ranging from [ɖː] or [dː] in many speech types on Italian soil to [dʒ] in some varieties of Spanish.
See also
- Apophony
- Begadkefat
- Chain shift
- Consonant mutation
- Germanic spirant law
- Grimm's Law
- High German consonant shift
- Historical linguistics
- Rendaku (a similar phenomenon in the Japanese language)
References
Citations
- ISBN 978-0-8156-3072-2.
- ^ Mensching, G. (1992). Einführung in die Sardische Sprache, Romanistischer Verlag, Bonn
- ^ a b Oftedal, M. (1956) The Gaelic of Leurbost Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap, Oslo
- ^ Ternes, E. (1989) The Phonemic Analysis of Scottish Gaelic Helmut Buske Verkag, Hamburg
- ^ ISBN 978-1-907165-00-9.
- ^ Conroy, Kevin M (2008). "Celtic initial consonant mutations - nghath and bhfuil?" (PDF). Boston College University Libraries. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-85285-234-7.
- ^ "Yleiskielen d:n murrevastineet". Archived from the original on 2021-10-08.
General references
- Crowley, Terry (1997). An Introduction to Historical Linguistics. 3rd edition. Oxford University Press.
- Oftedal, Magne (1985). Lenition in Celtic and in Insular Spanish: The Secondary Voicing of Stops in Gran Canaria. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 8200072827.