Lilias Armstrong

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Lilias Armstrong
Phonetician
Employer(s)Phonetics Department, University College, University of London
WorksFull list
Spouse
​
(m. 1926)​
This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Lilias Eveline Armstrong (29 September 1882 – 9 December 1937) was an English

phonetician. She worked at University College London, where she attained the rank of reader. Armstrong is most known for her work on English intonation as well as the phonetics and tone of Somali and Kikuyu. Her book on English intonation, written with Ida C. Ward
, was in print for 50 years. Armstrong also provided some of the first detailed descriptions of tone in Somali and Kikuyu.

Armstrong grew up in Northern England. She graduated from the University of Leeds, where she studied French and Latin. She taught French in an elementary school in the London suburbs for a while, but then joined the University College Phonetics Department, headed by Daniel Jones. Her most notable works were the 1926 book A Handbook of English Intonation, co-written with Ward, the 1934 paper "The Phonetic Structure of Somali", and the book The Phonetic and Tonal Structure of Kikuyu, published posthumously in 1940 after she died of a stroke in 1937 at age 55.

She was the subeditor of the

Le Maître Phonétique for more than a decade, and was praised in her day for her teaching, both during the academic term and in the department's summer vacation courses. Jones wrote in his obituary of her that she was "one of the finest phoneticians in the world".[2]

Early life

Lilias Eveline Armstrong was born on 29 September 1882 in

Northern English characteristics.[4] Armstrong studied French and Latin at the University of Leeds,[5] where she was a king's scholar.[3] She received her B.A. in 1906,[6] and she was also trained as a teacher.[7]

After graduating from Leeds, Armstrong taught French in East Ham for several years; she had success in this line of work, and was well on her way to becoming headmistress by the time she left this position in 1918.[8] While she was Senior Assistant Mistress, she began studying phonetics in the evenings part-time at the University College Phonetics Department in order to improve her teaching of French pronunciation.[9] In 1917, Armstrong received a Diploma with Distinction in French Phonetics; she got a Diploma with Distinction in English phonetics the following year.[7]

Academic career

Teaching and lecturing

Employment history

A Georgian-style terrace house (townhouse) with the number 21 on one of its doors
21 Gordon Square, "Arts Annexe I". Home to the University College Phonetics Department starting in 1922.[10]

Armstrong first taught phonetics in 1917 in Daniel Jones's summer course for missionaries; even before then, Jones had planned to give Armstrong a full-time position at the

School of Oriental Studies.[19] When Jones had to take a leave of absence the first nine months of 1920, Armstrong became acting head of the department in his stead.[20] During this time, she interviewed and admitted students into the department.[21] Other positions she held at University College were Chairman of the Refectory Committee and Secretary of the Women Staff Common Room.[22] Learned societies Armstrong belonged to included the International Phonetic Association,[23] the Modern Language Association,[24] and the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences.[25]

Courses and lectures

Armstrong taught classes on the phonetics of French, English,

speech pathology titled "Lecture-demonstrations on Methods of Correcting Defects of Speech".[29] Armstrong also led ear-training exercises,[30] which were an important part of teaching at the University College Department of Phonetics.[31]

In addition, Armstrong was involved in the teaching of several vacation courses held at University College. In 1919, the Phonetics Department began teaching its popular vacation courses in French and English phonetics.[32] In the inaugural 1919 course, Armstrong conducted daily ear-training exercises for a course intended for those studying and teaching French.[33] Two readers of English Studies who had attended the 1919 summer course for English favourably described Armstrong's ear-tests as "a great help" and "splendid";[34] these ear-training exercises were praised by the journal Leuvensche Bijdragen.[35] A Dutch participant in the 1921 session lauded Armstrong's ear-training classes and provided a description thereof.[36] By the 1921 summer course, she not only conducted the ear-training exercises, but also lectured on English phonetics alongside Jones;[35][37] she later gave lectures on English phonetics for a "Course of Spoken English for Foreigners", taught with Jones and Arthur Lloyd James during the summer of 1930.[38] An advertisement for the 1935 summer course described the whole programme as being "under the general direction" of Jones and Armstrong; that year included lectures taught by Armstrong and John Rupert Firth as well as ear-training exercises led by Jones and Armstrong.[39]

In October 1922, Armstrong delivered a public lecture at University College about the use of phonetics in teaching French.[40] The Verse Speaking Fellowship invited her to speak at their annual conference in 1933.[41] She travelled to Sweden in 1925 to deliver lectures on English intonation, going to Gothenburg in September and Stockholm in October.[42] In April 1927, she gave a lecture on English intonation to a meeting of the Modern Language Society [fi] of Helsinki, Finland.[43] Other countries Armstrong travelled to in order to give lectures included the Netherlands and the Soviet Union.[44]

Students

Armstrong had several students who were well-known scholars and linguists themselves. Indian linguist

Robert Guy Howarth was studying for his doctorate in English from 1937 to 1938, he also got a certificate in phonetics and took "A Course of General Phonetics", taught by Armstrong and others.[50]

Writing and research

Le Maître Phonétique

Southern English accent.[a] It appeared in the inaugural 1921 issue of Textes pour nos Élèves.[52]

The International Phonetic Association had suspended publication of its journal

Le Maître Phonétique during World War I, but in 1921 it began producing a yearly publication Textes pour nos Élèves ("Texts for our students"), which consisted of texts transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) from various languages,[53] such as English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish.[54] Armstrong contributed several transcriptions of English texts throughout its volumes.[55]

In 1923, Le Maître Phonétique resumed publication and started its third series. Armstrong was listed as the secrétaire de rédaction (

subeditor) starting from the July–September 1923 issue (3rd Ser., No. 3); she held this position throughout the January–March 1936 issue (3rd Ser., No. 53).[56] Armstrong had a significant role in the renewal of the journal and of the International Phonetic Association,[56] whose activities depended on the journal's publication.[53] She wrote various book reviews in the journal's kɔ̃trɑ̃dy[b] (Comptes rendus, "Reports") section, as well as phonetic transcriptions of English texts in its parti dez elɛːv (Partie des élèves, "Students' section").[3]

Le Maître Phonétique's spesimɛn (Spécimens, "Specimens") section consisted of phonetic sketches of less-studied languages accompanied by the phonetic transcription of a short text. For instance, one year Le Maître Phonétique had specimens of Gã, Biscayan, Japanese English, Poitevin, and Punjabi.[59] Armstrong's first specimen was of Swedish and published in 1927; it consisted of an inventory of Swedish vowels and a transcription of "ˊmanˑən sɔm ˇtapˑadə ˇykˑsan"[c] (Mannen som tappade yxan, "The man who dropped his axe"), a translation of "The Honest Woodcutter", as pronounced by Fröken Gyllander of Stockholm.[63] Earlier, Swedish grammarian Immanuel Björkhagen [sv] had thanked Armstrong for her assistance in describing the phonetics and sound-system of Swedish in his 1923 book Modern Swedish Grammar.[64] Armstrong's second specimen, published in 1929, was of Russian and consisted of a transcription of an excerpt of Nikolai Gogol's "May Night, or the Drowned Maiden".[65] Armstrong had also corrected the proof of M. V. Trofimov and Daniel Jones's 1923 book The Pronunciation of Russian.[66] Armstrong also did research on Arabic phonetics, but never published anything on the subject,[44] although she wrote a review of British missionary William Henry Temple Gairdner's book on Arabic phonetics for Le Maître Phonétique.[67]

London Phonetic Readers Series

Armstrong's first two books, An English Phonetic Reader (1923)

impression of An English Phonetic Reader was printed in 1956.[80]

Phonetic transcription of three Burmese words which mean "the north wind and the sea". Every syllable is preceded by a symbol to indicate tone.
Transcription from A Burmese Phonetic Reader.[d] Compare:
  • myauʔ ˍle ˋmiŋ nɛ ˍne ˋmiŋ (Firth)
  • mjaʊʔlemɪ̃́nɛ̰ neːmɪ̃́ (Watkins)[81]

Armstrong's second book for the series was a Burmese reader, co-written with the Burmese scholar Pe Maung Tin. Pe Maung Tin had the opportunity to study phonetics at University College and collaborate with Armstrong while he was in London studying law at Inner Temple and attending lectures by Charles Otto Blagden about Old Mon inscriptions.[82] Prior to the publication of the Burmese reader, Pe Maung Tin had written a Burmese specimen for Le Maître Phonétique.[83] Canadian American linguist William Cornyn described their reader as having an "elaborate description" of Burmese phonetics.[84] Armstrong and Pe Maung Tin developed the first transcription system for Burmese in accordance to principles of the International Phonetic Association; this was a "very detailed" transcription scheme, which made use of five diacritics for tone, some of which could be placed at multiple heights.[85]

One contemporary review of this book referred to the amount of specialized phonetic symbols and diacritics as a "profusion of diacritical marks that is rather confusing".

Indian Civil Service in Burma, praised A Burmese Phonetic Reader for being the joint work of a phonetician and a native speaker, writing "This excellent little book sets a standard which other writers on living Oriental languages will have to follow if they do not wish their work to be regarded as second-rate",[89] although he thought their transcription system was "too elaborate for ordinary use".[90] British linguist John Rupert Firth used a broad transcription which he simplified from Armstrong and Pe Maung Tin's system based in part on his experience using their Reader with Burmese speakers and with students of Burmese phonetics at Oxford's Indian Institute.[91] Burmese linguist Minn Latt said their transcription system used too many "unfamiliar symbols" for an ideal romanization scheme.[92] British linguist Justin Watkins used Armstrong and Pe Maung Tin's translation of "The North Wind and the Sun" for his 2001 illustration of the IPA for Burmese in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association.[93]

English intonation

A horizontal succession of: dot, dot, dash, dot, dash, dot, dot, downward curve, dot, dot. The first three symbols increase in height and then the symbols get progressively lower.
Tune 1: "He's a very wonderful pianist."[94]
A horizontal succession of: dash, dot, dot, dash, dot, dot, upward curve. All symbols get progressively lower.
Tune 2: "Have you been staying there long?"[95]

Armstrong and her colleague Ida C. Ward published their book Handbook of English Intonation in 1926.

gramophone records which consisted of Armstrong and Ward reading English passages.[97] These recordings appeared in bibliographies of speech and theatre training for decades.[98] Armstrong and Ward analyzed all English intonation patterns as essentially consisting of just two "Tunes": Tune 1 is typified by ending in a fall, and Tune 2 by ending in a rise.[99] American linguist Kenneth Lee Pike called their analysis "valuable" for learners of English because it found commonalities in the various uses of rising contours and of falling contours.[100] In 1943, Danish linguist C.A. Bodelsen [da] wrote "there is fairly general agreement" about the Tune 1 and Tune 2 classification; he also compares the Tune 1 and Tune 2 system of Handbook of English Intonation with the intonation classifications in An Outline of English Phonetics by Daniel Jones and English Intonation by Harold E. Palmer.[101]

Armstrong and Ward transcribed intonation in a system where lines and dots correspond to stressed and unstressed syllables, respectively, and vertical position corresponds to pitch.

Sinhalese,[104] and the preface to Handbook of English Intonation notes an inspiration in Hermann Klinghardt's notation for intonation.[105] Klinghardt said his book would have been impossible without Daniel Jones; his exercises also share similarities to Jones's intonation curves.[106] Armstrong and Ward used a system of discrete dots and marks to mark the intonation contour because they found it easier for learners of English to follow than a continuous line.[107]

Handbook of English Intonation had a lasting impact for decades, particularly in regards to

teaching English.[108] Pike wrote that the work was "an influential contribution to the field";[100] in 1948, he described it as providing "the most widely-accepted analysis of British intonation".[109] Armstrong and Ward's book remained in print and in use at least up until the 1970s.[110] Despite its popularity, its analysis has been criticized for being overly simplistic.[111] British phonetician Jack Windsor Lewis wrote their handbook made "little or no advance in analysing the structure of English intonation", and criticised their system for notating intonation for having "so much superfluous detail".[110] Pike wrote their tune-based intonation "proves insufficient to symbolize adequately (i.e. structurally) the intricate underlying system of contours in contrast one with another".[112] Armstrong and Ward themselves wrote that they were aware there is "a greater wealth of detail than [is] here recorded", but that "attention has been concentrated on the simplest forms of intonation used in conversation and in the reading of narrative and descriptive prose" since the book's intended reader was a foreign learner of English.[113] Armstrong and Ward's method for transcribing prosody was very popular; books on English prosody would often use their graphical method to provide introductory examples of intonation patterns even if they made use of other transcription methods.[114]

French phonetics and intonation

In 1932 she wrote The Phonetics of French: A Practical Handbook.

stop consonants.[119] Armstrong's publication of this well-received book "widened the circle of her influence".[120] In 1998, Scottish phonetician J. C. Catford wrote that he believed this book to still be the "best practical introduction to French phonetics".[46]

Chapter XVII of The Phonetics of French was about intonation,[121] but her main work on the topic was the 1934 book Studies in French Intonation co-written with her colleague Hélène Coustenoble.[122] They focused on the speech of "educated speakers of northern France".[123] This book was written for English learners of French as well; it provided the first comprehensive description of French intonation.[124] French intonation was also analyzed in terms of tunes;[125] it was a configuration-based approach, where intonation consists of a sequence of discrete pitch contours.[126] French intonation essentially consists of three contours in their analysis, namely: rise-falling, falling, and rising.[127] Armstrong and Coustenoble made use of a prosodic unit known as a Sense Group, which they defined as "each of the smallest groups of grammatically related words into which many sentences may be divided".[128] The book also provides discussion of English intonation in order to demonstrate how French intonation differs.[129] One contemporary review noted that "it seems to have received a favourable reception" in England.[130] The book contained numerous exercises, which led to another reviewer calling it "an excellent teaching manual" as well.[131] Oxford linguist Alfred Ewert called the book "very useful" in 1936,[132] Austrian philologist Elise Richter called it "an admirable achievement" in 1938,[133] and American linguist Robert A. Hall Jr. called the book "excellent" in 1946.[134] It has been later described as "highly idealized" for being based on conventions of reading French prose out loud.[135] It is considered to be a "classic work on French intonation".[136]

Somali

A horizontal staff of three lines with dashes either being between the first two lines, on the centre line, or between the bottom two lines. The dashes each are above a syllable of Somali text, which itself is above an English gloss. Both the Somali and English are phonetically transcribed.
The beginning of Armstrong's transcription of "The North Wind and the Sun" in her 1933 specimen[137][e]

Armstrong started doing phonetic research on

Somalis, and she gives their names as "Mr. Isman Dubet of Adadleh, about 25 miles northeast of Hargeisa, and Mr. Haji Farah of Berbera";[142] in Somali orthography, these names would be Cismaan Dubad and Xaaji Faarax.[143] These men were apparently sailors living in the East End of London, and Armstrong likely worked with them from 1931 to 1933.[44] Farah's pronunciation had been the basis for Armstrong's 1933 specimen,[144] and he had also been the subject for a radiographic phonetic study conducted by UCL phonetician Stephen Jones.[145]

Armstrong's analysis influenced a report by the Somalists

Bogumił Andrzejewski and Musa Haji Ismail Galal, which in turn influenced Somali linguist Shire Jama Ahmed's successful proposal for the Somali Latin alphabet.[146] In particular, Andrzejewski gave credit to her for the practice of doubled vowels to represent long vowels in Somali.[44] Andrzejweski mentioned some disadvantages of Armstrong's orthography proposal with respect to vowels, writing that "Armstrong's system is too narrow to deal with the fluctuations in the extents of Vowel Harmony and so rigid that its symbols often imply pauses (or absence of pauses) and a particular speed and style of pronunciation".[147] He also claimed that Armstrong's orthographic proposal for Somali vowels would be "too difficult for the general public (both Somali and non-Somali) to handle".[148]

In 1981, American phonologist

minimal pairs which are distinguished by tone.[151] German Africanist August Klingenheben [de] responded to Armstrong's work in a 1949 paper.[152] He called Armstrong's work "an excellent phonetic study",[153] but argued that Somali was not a true tone language but rather a stress language.[154] Andrzejewski wrote in 1956 that Armstrong's phonetic data were "more accurate than those of any other author on Somali";[155] he analyzed Somali as being "a border-line case between a tone language and a stress language",[156] making use of what he called "accentual features".[155] There remains a debate as to whether Somali should be considered a tone language or a pitch accent language.[157]

Armstrong was the first to describe the vowel system of Somali.

John Ibrahim Saeed said Armstrong's paper was "even now the outstanding study of Somali phonetics",[164] and in 1996, Martin Orwin wrote that it "remains essential reading for anyone interested in pursuing any aspect of the sound system of Somali".[165]

Kikuyu

Armstrong wrote a brief sketch of

SOAS who had earlier done work on Kikuyu with Kenyatta, and she was also once Armstrong's student.[170] Chapter IV "The Consonant Phonemes" contains twelve kymograph tracings of Kikuyu words to illustrate phonetic details;[172] the phonetic kymograph was an important instrument for experimental phonetic research at University College under Jones.[173]

The book contains an appendix in which Armstrong proposes an orthography for Kikuyu.

stop consonant, not a fricative; Armstrong noted there did not seem to be any objection to using ⟨b⟩ and ⟨g⟩ to represent fricatives in Kikuyu orthography even though they represent stops in English.[181] The use of ⟨d⟩ for [ð] has also been criticised as there is no alternation between [ð] and [ⁿd] in Kikuyu unlike the other two pairs; furthermore the Kikuyu voiced dental fricative phonologically patterns with voiceless fricatives instead of with other voiced ones.[182]

Armstrong also proposed that the seven vowels of Kikuyu be represented by the IPA symbols ⟨i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u⟩;

palatal nasal be written with the digraph ⟨ny⟩ (although she wrote she personally would prefer the letter ⟨Ɲ, ɲ⟩).[189] The education authorities in Kenya briefly recommended that schools use Armstrong's system.[190] In modern Kikuyu orthography, the voiced dental fricative is written ⟨th⟩, the velar and palatal nasals are respectively as ⟨ng'⟩ and ⟨ny⟩, and the vowels [e, ɛ, o, ɔ] are respectively written ⟨ĩ, e, ũ, o⟩.[191]

Each word or phrase is on its own line, followed by a series of dashes representing the pitch within parentheses: mbaraaði / ndi͜aniinirɛ / aaca, ndinaðɔɔma / tɛɛta wamboɣo / takehi͜ohɛ
Armstrong's transcription of the Kikuyu words meaning:
  • horse "mid, high, fairly-low—all level tones"
  • Didn't he finish? "mid, high-mid fall, low, low fall"
  • No, I didn't read it "high, low-mid rise, mid, high, high-mid fall, mid"
  • Do call Wambogo "mid, high, low, low fall, very-low fall"
  • Do please hurry up "mid, mid, high, high-low fall"[192]

Armstrong's book provided the first in-depth description of tone in any East African

Gikuyu: ‑ega "good").[198]

American Canadian linguist

Clement Doke considered Armstrong's book to be "a model of meticulous investigation and recording", writing in 1945 that it should "serve as a model" for subsequent work on tone in Bantu languages,[204] and the American phonologist Nick Clements described it in a 1984 paper as "an extremely valuable source of information due to the comprehensiveness of its coverage and accuracy of the author's phonetic observations".[205]

Personal life

A wide suburban street with semi-detached housing
Street in Church End, Finchley, where Armstrong and Boyanus lived

Armstrong married

University of Leningrad, where he worked with Russian linguist Lev Shcherba.[208] He came to the University College Phonetics Department in 1925, where he spent eight months learning English phonetics under Armstrong.[208]

After marriage, Boyanus had to return to the Soviet Union for eight years, while Armstrong had to stay in England.

Leningrad on two occasions, and he was able to briefly return to London in 1928. Boyanus was finally able to permanently move to England in January 1934, whereupon he became a lecturer in Russian and Phonetics at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies at the University of London.[207][208] While working at University College, Armstrong lived in Forest Gate[23] and Church End, Finchley.[210]

Death

A brick cloister, built in a modified Lombard-Romanesque style
Golders Green Crematorium

In November 1937, Armstrong became sick with a persistent bout of

British Society of Speech Therapists' journal Speech,[223] among other publications.[224][225][226]

In early 1938, when her widower Simon Boyanus brought up the possibility of publishing Armstrong's Kikuyu manuscript, Daniel Jones arranged for Beatrice Honikman to see it through to publication.

the London Blitz, Jones donated a copy of Armstrong's posthumously published book "as a fitting start in the reconstruction of the Phonetics Departmental Library".[230]

Selected works

Main article: Lilias Armstrong bibliography
  • Armstrong, L. E. (1923). An English Phonetic Reader. The London Phonetic Readers. London: University of London Press.
    hdl:2027/uc1.$b257662
    .
  • Armstrong, L. E.; Pe Maung Tin (1925). A Burmese Phonetic Reader: With English translation. The London Phonetic Readers. London: University of London Press.
  • Armstrong, L. E.; Ward, I. C. (1926). Handbook of English Intonation. Cambridge: Heffer.
    hdl:2027/mdp.39015005783116
    .     [Second edition printed in 1931.]
  • Armstrong, L. E. (1932). The Phonetics of French: A Practical Handbook. London: Bell.
  • Armstrong, L. E. (1934). "The Phonetic Structure of Somali". Mitteilungen des Seminars für orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin. 37 (Abt. III, Afrikanische Studien): 116–161. [Reprinted. Farnborough: Gregg. 1964.
    hdl:2307/4698Free access icon. Archived
    from the original on 18 October 2017.]
  • Coustenoble, H. N.; Armstrong, L. E. (1934). Studies in French Intonation. Cambridge: Heffer.
  • Armstrong, L. E. (1940). The Phonetic and Tonal Structure of Kikuyu. London:
    doi:10.4324/9781315104478
    ]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Prior to 1927 the stress diacritic in the International Phonetic Alphabet was an acute mark ˊ instead of a vertical line ˈ.[51]
  2. ^ The journal Le Maître Phonétique was written entirely in phonetic transcription, using the International Phonetic Alphabet; the official language of the journal was French, although many articles were written in English.[57] In contrast to modern conventions,[58] phonetic transcriptions at this time were not regularly placed in brackets.
  3. acute mark ˊ and caron ˇ are tone letters before a word to denote Swedish pitch accent. The acute mark represents Tone 1 or Acute Accent; the caron represents Tone 2 or Grave Accent (what Armstrong refers to as compound tone).[60] This convention is discussed in §51 of the 1912 edition of The Principles of the IPA[61] and §36 of the 1949 edition.[62]
  4. palatal approximant
    (pp. 18–19).
  5. ^ A similar system for marking tone and intonation was used for the texts in Armstrong (1934) and Armstrong (1940) although the staff in the latter lacked a centre-line. The numbers in the image refer to footnotes.
  6. ^ Armstrong uses digraphs, e.g., ⟨nd⟩, to transcribe prenasalized stops in Kikuyu. She writes, "It is phonetically sound to consider mb, nd, ŋg and nj as a single consonant sound with a nasal 'kick-off' and to regard these as phonemes of the language. A single symbol might be used to represent each of these phonemes, and thus the ideal of one letter per phoneme would be achieved. In this book, however, digraphs are used."[175]
  7. the symbol ⟨ʋ⟩ instead of ⟨β⟩ to represent the "weak bi-labial voiced fricative" in Kikuyu.[176]
    This was consistent with Practical Orthography of African Languages[177] and had been the convention of the IPA prior to 1927.[178]

Citations

  1. ^ Photo source: Collins & Mees (1999), between pp. 256 & 257.
  2. ^ Jones (1938), p. 2.
  3. ^ a b c d e Asher (2015).
  4. ^ Armstrong (1923), p. vii; Jones, Daniel (1963). Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary (12th ed.). London: Dent. p. xxix; Windsor Lewis, Jack (1985). "British Non-Dialect Accents". Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik. 33 (3): 248. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017.
  5. ^ Asher (2015); Collins & Mees (2006), p. 478.
  6. ^ "Bachelor of Arts". Graduates of the University of Leeds. The University of Leeds Calendar. 1906–1907: 375. 1906. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2017; Andrzejewski (1993–1994), p. 47; and Gimson (1977), p. 4. Compare Asher (2015), which gives 1908 as the year she got her B.A.
  7. ^ a b c Andrzejewski (1993–1994), p. 47.
  8. ^ Andrzejewski (1993–1994), p. 47; Collins & Mees (1999), p. 194.
  9. ^ The Times (11 Dec 1937), p. 19; Asher (2015).
  10. ISBN 978-0-19-872913-6
    .
  11. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 183, 194.
  12. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 194–195.
  13. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), p. 195.
  14. ^ Jones (1948), p. 128.
  15. ^ Andrzejewski (1993–1994), p. 47; Asher (2015); Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 283–284, 319. Compare Collins & Mees (1999), p. 195 and Gimson (1977), p. 3, which say she became senior lecturer in 1920.
  16. ^ Nature (1938); Gimson (1977), p. 4; Andrzejewski (1993–1994), p. 47. Compare Asher (2015), which gives 1936 as the year she got readership.
  17. ^ "London, May 19". University News. The Times. No. 47,689. London. 20 May 1937. col D, p. 11.
  18. ^ R. E. G. (November 1937). "University of London–University College". Home University News. The Universities Review. 10 (1): 73.
  19. ^ School of Oriental Studies (1937). "Former Teachers of the School". Appendix. The Calendar of the School of Oriental Studies (University of London). For the Twenty-Second Session 1937–8: 242; Andrzejewski (1993–1994), p. 47.
  20. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 281–282.
  21. ISSN 1344-1086. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2017.
  22. ^ UCL (1938), pp. 33–34.
  23. ^
    hdl:2027/mdp.39015025021265
    .
  24. ^ "Modern Language Association". Modern Language Teaching. 15 (1): 30. February 1919.
  25. ^ Jones, Daniel; Fry, D. B., eds. (1936). "List of Members". Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 319.
  26. ^ Plug (2004), pp. 473–474; McLeod (2005), p. 80.
  27. ^ University College, London (1935). "Phonetics". Calendar, 1935–36: 60.
  28. ^ University of London (1935). "Phonetics". Instruction-Courses, 1935–1936. Regulations and Courses for Internal Students, 1935–36: 139.
  29. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), p. 334, citing Departmental Prospectus, 1933–34.
  30. ^ a b Chatterji (1968), p. 20.
  31. ^ Ward (1928), pp. 48–50; Jones (1948), pp. 129–131; and Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 421–424.
  32. ^ Ward (1928), p. 51.
  33. ^ "From Here and There". Modern Language Teaching. 15 (3): 83. June 1919.
  34. doi:10.1080/00138381908596384
    .
  35. ^ a b Grootaers, L. [in Dutch], ed. (1921). "Engelsche vacantieleergangen" [English vacation courses] (PDF). Kroniek. Leuvensche Bijdragen (in Dutch). 13 (1–2): 134. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017.
  36. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 287–288, citing Prins, J. P. (8 September 1921). "Vacantie-cursus te Londen". De School met den Bijbel (in Dutch). Vol. 19, no. 10. pp. 139–140. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023.
  37. ^ "Cours de Vacances à Londres". Chronique Universitaire. Revue de l'Enseignement des Langues Vivantes (in French). 38 (5): 225. May 1921.
  38. JSTOR 44704355
    .
  39. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), p. 333.
  40. doi:10.1038/110500b0
    ; "Arrangements for To-day". The Times. No. 43,159. London. 11 October 1922. col F, p. 13.
  41. ^ Armstrong, L. E. (July–September 1933c). "The Technique of Speech". Good Speech. 3. London: Verse Speaking Fellowship: 2–5.
  42. JSTOR 44748064
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  216. ^ Special Cable to the New York Times (11 December 1937). "Lilias Armstrong, Phonetics Expert: Leader in Field, on Faculty of University of London Since 1918, Is Dead". Obituaries. The New York Times. p. 19. ProQuest 102027710.
  217. ^ Nature (1938).
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  220. ^ Zwirner, Eberhard [in German] (1938). "Miss Lilias Armstrong†". Archiv für vergleichende Phonetik. 2: 62–63.
  221. ^ V. A–g. (1938). "Miss Lilias Armstrong". Moderna Språk (in Swedish). 32 (1): 22.
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  224. ^ R. E. G. (May 1938). "University of London–University College". Home University News. The Universities Review. 10 (2): 147; "Obituary", page 166 of this issue.
  225. ^ "University of London, University College". The Yearbook of the Universities of the Empire: 148. 1939.
  226. ^ "Notes of the Month". The Crown Colonist. 8 (75): 122. February 1938.
  227. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 345–347.
  228. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), pp. 195, 503.
  229. ^ Jones (1938).
  230. ^ Collins & Mees (1999), p. 353, quoting a letter Jones wrote to Allen Mawer, the UCL provost, on 28 November 1940.

References

Further reading

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