Machiavellianism (psychology)

Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism is one of the traits in the dark triad model, along with psychopathy and narcissism.
Specialty	Personality psychology
Causes	Genetic and environmental[1][2]

In the field of

It is one of the dark triad traits, along with the subclinical versions of narcissism and psychopathy.^[12][13][14]

Origin of the construct

Adapting Machiavelli for psychometric use

In 1955, psychologist Richard Christie set out to study the thought processes and actions of those who manipulate others, such as political

Christie made light of the difficulty in adapting Machiavelli's writings into a non political test, joking that his advice was "better suited for Renaissance princes" than for college undergraduates.[19] Christie used more colloquial, everyday wording when creating the scale items, as most taking the test would have difficulties understanding the questions in their original prose.^[20]

Though Christie named the trait after Machiavelli, he makes clear that he used sentences from Machiavelli's works only as a sort of litmus test to study deceptive and manipulative behavior, and that he was not concerned with Machiavelli's political theory, stating specifically that:^[21]

Historians disagree as to whether Machiavelli was a cynic who wrote political satire, a patriot, or the first modern political scientist. The present concern is not with Machiavelli as an historic figure, but as the source of ideas about those who manipulate others.

Researcher and Psychology Today author Dale Hartley made this point more clear in his book, Machiavellians: Gulling The Rubes:^[22]

When psychologists refer to the terms, Machiavellian or Machiavellianism, they do not mean Machiavelli's political advice. They refer instead to the underlying personality traits of cynicism, duplicity and scheming by which master manipulators conceive and execute their agendas.

Mach IV

Christie and Geis's Mach IV test, a 20-question,

The Mach IV test influenced the creation of an assessment called the Dirty Dozen, which contains 12 items, and the Short Dark Triad, composed of 27 items.[28]

High vs Low Machiavellianism

Like all personality traits, Machiavellianism is a characteristic that exists on a spectrum or continuum.^[29][30] Christie and others noted that High Machs were more likely to cheat in experimental games, manipulate others around them, and were generally detached in their interactions. This was opposed to the behavior of Low Machs, who found such behaviors immoral, and refrained from them.^[31]

The higher one is on the Machiavellianism scale, the more likely they are to deceive and exploit at the expense of someone else, engage in unprincipled behavior, and have a lack of empathetic feelings.^[4]

Core features

In developing the construct studying manipulators, Christie theorized that they would possess the following characteristics:^[32]

1. A relative lack of affect in interpersonal relationships: Manipulators do not empathize with their victims. The more empathy one has, Christie says, the less likely one will manipulate a person to do their bidding.

2. A lack of concern for conventional morality: Christie asserts that the manipulator is not concerned with the morality of behaviors such as lying and cheating.

3. A lack of gross

4. Low ideological commitment: Manipulators prefer to focus on getting things done pragmatically rather than focus on ideological allegiances. Christie states that while manipulators are to be found in organizations of differing ideals, they are more likely to be involved in tactics that achieve individual ends than inflexible idealistic ones.^[32]

Five-Factor Model

Under the recently devised Five-Factor Model of Machiavellianism, three characteristics underlie the construct:^[33]

• Antagonism: manipulativeness, cynicism, selfishness, callousness, and arrogance.
• Planfulness: deliberation and orderliness.
• Agency: achievement-striving, assertiveness, self-confidence, emotional invulnerability, activity and competence.

Causes

Genetic and environmental

Several behavioral genetics studies on the dark triad have shown that Machiavellianism has both significantly genetic and environmental influences.^{[34][35][36][37]} Researchers have noted that while Machiavellianism is heritable to a substantial degree, it can also be influenced by the shared-environment (i.e. sibling groups) slightly more than narcissism and psychopathy.^[38][34][39] Other traits associated with machiavellianism are influenced by genetics as well, as one study notes that "The co-occurrence of alexithymia and Machiavellianism was most heavily influenced by genetic factors, and to a lesser but significant extent by non-shared environmental factors."^[40] Machiavellianism is also heavily correlated with primary psychopathy which is itself strongly heritable.^[41] A study on the "core" of dark triad traits also emphasized that the residual traits of Machiavellianism had "significant genetic components".^[2] One particular study found a gene responsible for dopamine reception was positively associated with individuals who scored high on the MACH IV, but it is unclear what specific mechanisms cause this effect.^[42][43] A study noted that the emotionality of Machiavellianism may also be genetically determined, with the authors stating that "it can be expected that in the case of Machiavellianism, the genetic influence may manifest itself by affecting the emotional sphere. That affective insensitivity – as McIlwain (2003) designates it--makes Machiavellians similar to psychopaths. In the study by Vernon et al (2008), genetic factors for Machiavellianism and psychopathy were correlated, which suggests that the variability of both qualities is greatly affected by the same genes. The genetically determined “cool syndrome” makes it easier for the child to use effective manipulation, leading to the development of a permanent behaviour strategy, at the same time protecting the child from internal punishments such as shame or guilt."^[44]

Studies have found a link between Machiavellianism and a blunted

The environmental causes (such as shared, and non-shared environment) that contribute to the development of machiavellianism were childhood maltreatment and neglect, social reinforcement of manipulative behaviors from an early age, and poor family functioning.[38]^[48] One study even stated that "the etiology of Machiavellianism, similarly to the development of a dismissing-avoidant pattern, partly originates from childhood experiences obtained in relationships with unexpressive, less understanding, highly punitive or restrictive caregivers".^[49][50][51] In many studies, Machiavellianism has been heavily correlated with negative home atmospheres, loneliness, and adverse parental experiences. One study noted that punishment specifically led to the "emergence of deceitful and exploitative interpersonal tactics. The authors of the study concluded that these results "might give further support for the idea that Machiavellian personality traits are possible strategic responses to childhood adversities".^[48] Another study found the traits of Machiavellianism to be a response to early maladaptive schemas (EMS), essentially coping mechanisms for emotional deprivation, mistrust, abuse, and caregiver rejection.^[52] Irregular parent care, such as a mother being neglectful and a father being overprotective, has also been correlated with Machiavellianism.^[53] The hereditary influence on Machiavellianism may make it challenging to disentangle the genetic underpinnings from the effects of parental upbringing and environmental factors.^[54]

In general, Jones (2020) asserts that "there may be a myriad of reasons, including some environmental reasons, as to why someone would become cynical, habitually ignore morality, or use manipulative persuasion. There may be others who are born cynical, manipulative, and amoral. Thus, there may be differences in etiology that lead to differences in how fixed the trait is, and how it is expressed". ^[55]

Machiavellianism in children

Ever since the creation of the construct in the 1960s, there has been extensive research on Machiavellianism in young children and adolescents, via a measure dubbed the "Kiddie Mach" test.^[56][57] The first study was done in 1966 as a part of Dorothea Braginsky's doctoral dissertation, with the subjects being as young as 10 years old.^[56] Studies have shown that traits of Machiavellianism and other dark triad traits were already present in preschool children,^[58] and more pronounced in adolescents aged 11–17.^[59] There have been studies to measure Machiavellianism in 6 year olds using adult informants to analyze the child's behavior.^[60][61] Deceptive behaviors by children even as young as 3 were also investigated heavily.^[62][63][64] Peer reports suggest that children higher in Machiavellianism exhibit behaviors such as using both prosocial and coercive strategies based on how much is to be gained in a situation, and they tend to manipulate indirectly.^[65] Children who score highly on the Machiavellianism scale tend to be more successful in manipulation, do it more frequently, and are judged as better at manipulation than those who score lower.^[66] Parental levels of Machiavellianism seem to have a slight effect on the child's own level. Machiavellianism levels in fathers was positively correlated with the Machiavellianism levels of their children, but the mother's level had no significant effect. One study concluded that "parental Machiavellianism is a predictor and perhaps a cause of children's Machiavellian beliefs and their manipulative success".^[67] Machiavellianism is also correlated with childhood aggression, especially concerning the control of social hierarchies.^[68] One study found a trend upwards with respect to Machiavellianism from late childhood to adolescence, when levels of Machiavellianism are thought to peak. From adolescence throughout adulthood there is a significant and steady downward trend with regard to levels of Machiavellianism, until the age of 65 where an overall lifetime minimum is reached.^[69]

Peer ratings of Machiavellian children are inconsistent, with some researchers reporting that Machiavellian children are rated as popular,^[70] and some reporting that they are less well liked by peers.^[71][72] A study involving Greek children ages 8–12 noted that the children highest in Machiavellianism showed aggressive tendencies and were more likely to bully others, though the tactics varied by gender.^[73][74]

Dark triad

In 1998, John McHoskey, William Worzel, and Christopher Szyarto proposed that narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are more or less interchangeable in normal samples.^[75][76] Delroy L. Paulhus and McHoskey debated these perspectives at an American Psychological Association conference, inspiring a body of research that continues to grow in the published literature. Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams found enough differences between the traits to suggest that they were distinct despite their similarities, thus the concept of a "triad" of offensive personality traits was conceptualized.^[77] There has been research on Machiavellianism using various dark triad measures, including the Short Dark Triad (SD3), and the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen test.^[78][79]

Psychopathy

Many psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially indistinguishable from psychopathy, as they both share manipulative tendencies, disregard for morality, and cold callousness as their primary attributes.^[80][81] There is an immense and ongoing debate amongst researchers as to whether or not Machiavellianism and psychopathy should be treated as the same construct, or at least view Machiavellianism as a trait of psychopathy.^[82] When tested, High Machs scored consistently high on measures of psychopathy, more than Low Machs. Primary psychopaths also scored higher on the Machiavellianism scale than secondary psychopaths.^[83] According to John McHoskey, the MACH-IV test is merely "a global measure of psychopathy in noninstitutionalized populations", and that this is a result of the disconnect between clinical and personality psychology.^[76] Many have stated that the Machiavellianism scale measures nothing more than "successful" psychopathy, or psychopathy without the extreme clinical characteristics.^[84] Even compared to other "dark" traits, research has shown that Psychopathy correlates with Machiavellianism far more than it correlates with narcissism.^[81][85] Some authors have stated that Machiavellianism and psychopathy represent the issue of a jangle fallacy, as both constructs are named differently yet describe the same concept.^[86] A recent paper published in 2022 stated that Machiavellianism "is theoretically distinct from psychopathy, but empirically they are nearly indistinguishable".^[87]

Researchers note that Machiavellianism is well represented in most measures of psychopathy, such as the Factor 1 characteristics on the

There have been attempts to combine Machiavellianism and psychopathy into one construct, such as the creation of a "Dark Dyad" as opposed to a "Dark Triad", with the exclusion of narcissism.[100]^[101]

A recent study done on criminal psychopaths noted that Machiavellianism showed the strongest association with the affective aspect of psychopathy.^[102]

Differences between constructs: Impulse control

Many other psychologists state that while Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap heavily, there is much evidence to suggest that they are distinct personality constructs.

Daniel Jones notes that even though both psychopaths and High Machs share a manipulative and callous nature, the difference between Machiavellianism and psychopathy lies in the type of manipulation employed by the two constructs. Machiavellianism is marked by calculated planning, and manipulating only when something is to be gained, while psychopathy is marked by rashness, and manipulating regardless of situation.[55]

Narcissism

Individuals high in Machiavellianism and narcissism both manipulate to improve their reputations, and how they appear to others.^[111][112] Individuals high in the two traits do this as a form of self aggrandizement to help their chances of success in a given situation.^[113] Machiavellianism scores were positively associated with aspects of narcissism such as entitlement and exploitativeness, and inversely associated with adaptive narcissistic tendencies, like self-sufficiency.^[75] Studies have also shown that Machiavellians are more realistic about their character, while narcissists are less realistic about theirs.^[114] Compared to High Machs, narcissists are less malevolent and show a more socially positive personality. They also have higher levels of self-rated happiness.^[115]

While both Machiavellianism and narcissism involve a lack of empathy and a focus on self-interest, their motivations and manifestations differ. Machiavellians have tendencies to be driven by personal gain, whereas narcissists are driven by a need for validation and admiration.^[116] Additionally, Machiavellians tend to be more strategic and calculating in their interpersonal interactions, while narcissists may be more impulsive and attention-seeking.^[117]

In terms of social relationships, Machiavellians are more likely to exploit and manipulate others, while narcissists may be more likely to seek out relationships that serve to bolster their self-esteem and provide them with the admiration they desire.^[118]

White collar crime

Research has shown that individuals high in Machiavellianism may be more willing to engage in white collar crimes.^{[119][120][121]} Psychologist Daniel Jones has stated that "individuals higher on Machiavellianism are well suited for crimes in the financial world, especially crimes that skirt the legal system".^[122] Delroy Paulhus has stated that Machiavellianism is the main trait for con artists, and not psychopathy, stating that:

Although direct research on this topic is difficult, it seems clear that malevolent stockbrokers such as Bernie Madoff do not qualify as psychopaths: They are corporate Machiavellians who use deliberate, strategic procedures for exploiting others. A genuine psychopath, even at the subclinical level, lacks the self-control to orchestrate the schemes of a shrewd stockbroker.^[109]

In a research paper, Daniel Jones and others stated that a person high on Machiavellianism would also be possibly drawn to cybercrime, noting that "although we did not directly assess crimes, we did find patterns of system infiltration that were different among the three traits, with Machiavellianism being associated with the stealthiest approach among the three traits." They also stated that Machiavellianism would only be associated with crime if the "benefits outweighed the risks". They went on to clarify that this is opposed to individuals high in psychopathy, whom are prone to crime regardless of the situation.^[123][124]

DSM: Trait, not disorder

Machiavellianism has never been considered a disorder, nor has it been referenced in any version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.^[125][126] It has been treated as strictly a personality construct. It is primarily studied by personality psychologists, as it is a non-clinical personality style.^[76]

Relations with other personality traits

There is immense literature concerning the relationships between Machiavellianism and other personality dimensions, such as the traits in the Big Five trait model.^[81] Machiavellianism has also been related to interpersonal aggression and hostile behavior.^[127]

Big Five

Mach-IV scores are negatively correlated with

There are two distinct types of empathy which people use to relate to each other which are referred to as hot and cold empathy.^[130][131] Cold empathy (or cognitive empathy) refers to the understanding of how others might react to one's actions or a certain event.^[132] Hot empathy (or emotional/affective empathy) refers to the emotional reaction others might have to the emotions of another person.^[133][134] Machiavellianism was consistently negatively correlated with affective empathy in nearly every study.^{[54][135][136]} Machiavellianism was also negatively correlated with affective resonance (feeling good when others feel good) and positively associated with affective dissonance (e.g. feeling happy when others are sad).^[136] People high in Machiavellianism tend to have a better understanding of cold empathy and do not feel hot empathy which explains why they seem cold and uncaring.^[137][138] Research results have also suggested that Machiavellians are deficient only at the level of affective empathy (sharing of emotions), whereas their cognitive empathy is intact, even high.^[139][140] Another study suggested that high Machs are deficient at both kinds of empathy.^[141] Studies also assert that high Machs do not feel guilt over the consequences of their manipulations.^[76][142] High Machs are less likely to be altruistic, and they are less likely to be concerned with the problems of others.^[143] One study proposed that High Machs have more automatic (that is, un-conscious) recognition of other's negative emotions more than low Machs, and that this understanding of emotions may in fact aid in the manipulation of others.^[144]

Unemotionality

One of the primary traits of machiavellianism is a detached, unemotional attitude and lack of affect in regards to others.^[145] Christie and Geis noted that the primary difference between high machs and low machs was the degree of emotion invested in interpersonal relations, with those scoring high having the lowest.^[146][31] Research has been done on the extent of the low emotionality of those who score high on the Machiavellianism scale.^[147] Doris Mcllwain noted that "Machiavellians do not inhabit the realm of emotion in the same way as others, yet they use it to manipulate others. They do not experience feelings, empathy, or morality in normative ways. yet they are consummate manipulators and deceivers precisely by playing upon these sentiments and convictions in others. Thus they induce in others the guilt they hardly feel themselves."^[148] A study done by Farah Ali and others noted that Machiavellianism seems to have emotional reactions to stimuli similar to primary psychopathy, differing only in higher levels of anxiety, which those who score highly on machiavellianism may be prone to.^[149][76] Machiavellianism has an unclear relation with anxiety levels, some researchers have found positive correlations, while some have found no relation at all.^[150] Researchers have noted that High Machs may experience intense worries when things do not go their way, but are unable to express it.^[151]

A recent analysis discovered that, in addition to acting for mostly self interest and profit, High Machs used significantly less words when referring to emotional involvement. They concluded that "this study confirmed previous findings that High Machs have a cool and rational character and a proself orientation and showed that their lack of group orientation may account for their low cooperation in social dilemmas."^[152]

Alexithymia is also considered a key trait that is correlated heavily with Machiavellianism.^{[146][139][153]} It is the lack of awareness of one's own emotions as well as the emotions of others.^[154] When tested, healthy alexithymic individuals have been found to obtain high Machiavellianism scores.^[155][139] This was not surprising to researchers, seeing as the unemotionality of Machiavellianism shows similarities to what alexithymics experience.^[11] One study examined the relationship between alexithymia and endorsement of Machiavellian beliefs amongst university students. Results showed a positive correlation between alexithymia and Machiavellian beliefs, suggesting those with higher levels of alexithymia were more likely to endorse the view that manipulating others is an effective strategy.^[156]

Neuroticism/Depression

Researchers have often debated the potential links between Machiavellianism and a neurotic, anxious disposition.

A 1992 review described the motivation of those high on the Machiavellianism scale as related to cold selfishness and pure instrumentality, and those high on the trait were assumed to pursue their motives (e.g. sex, achievement, sociality) in duplicitous ways. More recent research on the motivations of high Machs compared to low Machs found that they gave high priority to money, power, and competition and relatively low priority to community building, self-love, and family commitment. High Machs admitted to focusing on unmitigated achievement and winning at any cost.^{[103][10][161]}

The research on behaviors which high Machs engage in suggest that they are willing to achieve their goals by bending and breaking rules, cheating, and stealing.^[162] People high in Machiavellianism are able to easily switch between working with others to taking advantage of others to achieve their goals, and they are more willing to do things others see as terrible or immoral.^{[137][163][164]}

Mental abilities

Due to their skill at interpersonal manipulation, there has often been an assumption that high Machs possess superior intelligence, or ability to understand other people in social situations. Recent research provides some support for this assumption.

Furthermore, studies on emotional intelligence have found that high Machiavellianism is usually associated with low emotional intelligence as assessed by both performance and questionnaire measures.^[167] Both emotional empathy and emotion recognition have been shown to have negative correlations with Machiavellianism.^[32][9] Additionally, research has shown that Machiavellianism is unrelated to a more advanced theory of mind, that is, the ability to anticipate what others are thinking in social situations.^[141] However, research results have suggested the contrary viewpoint that high Machiavellianism is associated with excellent theory of mind skills.^[168][139]

When it comes to manipulation, individuals high in Machiavellianism may, according to Bereczkei, "have certain cognitive and social skills that enable them to properly adapt to the challenges of environmental circumstances".^[169] They also are incredibly perceptive to the presence of others, and are able to feign altruism to enhance their reputation.^[170] A recent study investigated whether Machiavellianism is associated with the production of "bullshit" - inaccurate or meaningless information intended to impress, persuade or mislead. The researchers found that the manipulative aspect of Machiavellianism (Machiavellian approach) was linked to "persuasive bullshitting", aimed at gaining desired resources. The distrustful aspect (Machiavellian avoidance) was associated with "evasive bullshitting", spreading vague information to prevent disadvantages. Those high in Machiavellian avoidance were even better at distinguishing misinformation from valuable information.^[171]

Neurological studies

There have been few studies on the neural correlates of Machiavellianism. Research has shown that Machiavellianism has been correlated with changes in gray matter in the areas of the basal ganglia, left prefrontal cortex, bilaterally in the insula, and in the right hippocampus and the left parahippocampal gyrus.^[172] Researcher Tamas Bereczkei stated that the manipulation skill in High Machs is associated with neural correlates that are responsible for decision making.^[41][173] He also noted that behaviors associated with Machiavellianism need to "recruit more neural resources than a honest behavior, especially when manipulators face a cooperative partner as a potential victim. Machiavellians have to inhibit the norm of reciprocity and, additionally, generate an opposite response."^[174] Machiavellianism has also been linked with lesions in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.^[175] Frontal dysfunction was also linked with Machiavellianism.^[176] Daniel Jones also concluded that those who score high on Machiavellianism have the "neurological structure of a strategic manipulator".^[177] The activation of the task-positive network (TPN) and the default mode network (DMN) have also been associated with a lack of genuine empathy, and also have been observed in Machiavellianism.^[178] A recent study linked regional gray matter volume in the left superior frontal gyrus to both Machiavellianism and social aggression, which is "intentional antisocial behavior directed to damage others’ social reputations or interpersonal relationships through socially manipulative tactics".^[179]

Social relationships

The effects that one's level of Machiavellianism has on a person's socialization and interpersonal relationships, such as friendships and romantic relationships, has been studied extensively. High Machs are highly likely to ingratiate themselves within social groups via compliments and conforming their opinions to those around them.^[180] High Machs are more than likely to choose better quality friends, as they can guess better who is a good person and thus more pliable for manipulation.

Like the other dark triad traits, those high on Machiavellianism may be more willing to

Research has consistently shown that men score higher than women in Machiavellianism.[4] There is evidence to suggest that Machiavellianism is represented differently in both sexes, with men being more opportunistic, self confident, and willing to take risks, while women higher in Machiavellianism are more likely to be avoidant and have anxious features.^[150] While psychopathy was an indicator of future infidelity amongst both men and women, Machiavellianism was a predictor amongst women.^[199] The findings of one research paper showed that men, but not women, high in Machiavellianism were non-impulsive and high in planning, which suggests that the apparent impulsivity of Machiavellianism may be a question of gender.^[200]

Cross-cultural studies

There have been many studies on how Machiavellianism is presented in people from different countries and with different cultures. Multiple studies found that in nearly all countries, men scored higher than women in Machiavellianism, and that the gender differences were notable.^[201] The populations of many other countries varied from their western counterparts in their levels of dark triad traits overall, which the authors of one study attributed to sociopolitical factors and levels of economic engagement.^[202] In another cross cultural study, Machiavellianism also showed associations with limited interactive or normative values.^[203] A study investigated the relationship between emotion recognition and dark personality traits (including Machiavellianism) across cultures. The effects were gender and culture-dependent. Among both German males and females, Machiavellianism showed strong positive associations with emotionally manipulative tactics.^[204] Some scholars noted an issue with many cross cultural studies on machiavellianism, primarily that "researchers have used measures of Machiavellianism (Mach IV) which were derived from Western concepts and which may not have similar meanings when applied to non-Western groups."^[205]

Aggression and antisocial behavior

Machiavellianism has little association with the outright display of aggression.^[206] Those high in Machiavellianism tend to be more more aggressive to short term as opposed to long term partners.^[105] While Machiavellianism is associated with hostility, those high on the trait may mask it depending on the manipulation tactic used.^[207] Machiavellianism also is associated with the tuning of aggression to the benefit long term objectives, only engaging in antisocial behavior when the stakes are low and it proffers benefits, unlike psychopathy and narcissism.^[105][206] In a study by Delroy Paulhus and Daniel Jones, High Machs were found to refrain from cheating under risky situations, preferring to sustain their reputation for the long term than to engage in short term financial gain. The authors then state that High Machs may cheat under high risk scenarios, but only when "ego-depleted", which then makes their behavior appear similar to those of psychopaths.^[208] McHoskey found that Mach is associated with "cheating, divulging intimate sexual secrets to third parties, and both feigning love and inducing intoxication to secure sex".^[209] He also suggested that Machiavellianism is correlated with an extensive focus on financial gain, and is also correlated with antisocial behaviors such as stealing, vandalism, and cheating as opposed to prosocial actions like helping others.^[210]

In the workplace

Machiavellianism is also studied by organizational psychologists, especially those who study manipulative behaviors in workplace settings.^{[211][212][213]} Workplace behaviors associated with this concept include flattery, deceit, coercion, and the abuse of others through one's position of leadership.^{[214][215][216]} These behaviors in the workplace are ultimately done to advance personal interests.^{[217][218][112]} Research has shown that one's level of Machiavellianism can be a major factor in situations where workplace manipulation is involved because this trait can have an effect on the ability for an individual to "fit" into a highly political work environment.^[219] Research has found individuals with Dark Triad traits are drawn to entrepreneurship. Certain qualities found in the Dark Triad are similar to traits needed for effective entrepreneurship, such as confidence, charisma and risk taking.^[220][221]

Career choice and advancement

Individuals high in machiavellianism tend to gravitate towards particular careers, especially those that require a high degree of competitiveness needed to succeed.^[222] High Machs are ambitious enough to cut corners and use aggressive means if it is necessary to get ahead in their careers.^[222] One study found that "Machiavellianism was positively related to leadership position and career satisfaction".^[223] Individuals high in machiavellian traits are especially drawn to leadership and management positions, which became an important subject in the primary literature. Sales careers also attract dark triad individuals, with one study stating that such individuals are "prevalent" in the industry.^[224] One study noted that those who possess machiavellian traits "are more productive but received lower overall managerial ratings", and that "Machiavellianism may in certain circumstances, be somewhat advantageous for long-term sales performance."^[225] Machiavellianism was also associated with the use of "hard" (i.e. aggressive and hostile behavior) and "soft" (i.e. joking/kidding, offering compliments) tactics in the workforce.^[226] One's political skill in the workplace and elsewhere may even mask the behaviors and characteristics associated with machiavellianism.^[227]

It was shown that those high on Machiavellianism are more drawn to academic majors like economics, law, and politics, as opposed to the "person-oriented" majors like education, nursing, and social work that were associated with lower Machiavellianism scores.^[228]

Dimensions of the MACH scale

Although there have been a myriad of proposed factor structures, two dimensions emerge most consistently within factor-analytic research – differentiating Machiavellian views from behaviors.^[229] Although many posit that the Mach IV scale is unable to reliably capture the two dimensions, a 10-item subset of the scale known as the "two-dimensional Mach IV" (TDM-V), reproduces the views and tactics dimensions across countries, genders, sample types, and scale category length.^[30][38] The "Views" dimension appears to capture the neurotic, narcissistic, pessimistic, and distrustful aspects of Machiavellianism, while the "Tactics" component captures the more unconscientious, self-serving, and deceitful behavioral aspects. More recently, in response to criticisms of the Mach-IV, researchers developed the Five-Factor Machiavellianism Inventory (FFMI), which attempts to include concepts (like being calculated and planful) that are not adequately captured by the Mach-IV.^[33]

Construct validity and criticism

There has been debate on how valid scales of Machiavellianism are in tapping the construct.^[164] It is often stated by those critical of Machiavellianism scales that it does not actually measure the theoretical trait, but something nearly identical to psychopathy and narcissism. For example it is often stated that Machiavellianism is marked by less impulsivity and better long term thinking as opposed to psychopathy, but some empirical research shows that even High Machs can act impulsive in certain scenarios.^[230] Lynam and others stated "we suggest that existing measures of Machiavellianism are functioning as proxy measures of psychopathy." ^[88]

Most of the research done on Machiavellianism has been done with either the Mach IV or Mach V, though the Mach V is no longer in use due to psychometric issues.^[229] Many have expressed concerns with the reliability of the Mach IV scale to capture all of the features of Machiavellianism, thus many proposals have been made in favor of other Machiavellianism scales.^[231][9]

Scale Evaluation

Psychologist John Rauthmann and others have stated that, while the MACH-IV is "a generally reliable and valid scale", it has its shortcomings. These include the response styles of the test takers, the varying factor structures, and " insufficient content and construct validity". The researchers developed their own scale instead to study Machiavellianism multidimensionally instead of unidimensionally to prevent the construct from becoming hard to study effectively.^[9] Psychologist Jason Dahling and others have created another measure of Machiavellianism, dubbed the Machiavellian Personality Scale (or MPS for short).^[232]

Game theory

In 2002, the Machiavellianism scale of Christie and Geis was applied by behavioral

A study done by David Wilson and other researchers noted that while High Machs tend to defect from their groups, they are also unlikely to succeed in the long term simply by manipulating others, and that some cooperation is necessary for further success and to avoid a situation in which they are retaliated against.[234]^[235]

See also

• Amorality
• Dark Triad Dirty Dozen
• Light triad
• Social dominance orientation

References