Nomadic pastoralism
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Nomadic pastoralism is a form of
Of the estimated 30–40 million nomadic pastoralists worldwide, most are found in
There is substantive uncertainty over the extent to which the various causes for degradation affect grassland. Different causes have been identified which include overgrazing, mining, agricultural reclamation, pests and rodents, soil properties, tectonic activity, and climate change.[3] Simultaneously, it is maintained that some, such as overgrazing and overstocking, may be overstated while others, such as climate change, mining and agricultural reclamation, may be under reported. In this context, there is also uncertainty as to the long-term effect of human behavior on the grassland as compared to non-biotic factors.[4]
Origin and history
In the past it was asserted that pastoral nomads left no presence archaeologically or were impoverished, but this has now been challenged,
In Bronze Age Central Asia, nomadic populations are associated with the earliest transmissions of millet and wheat grains through the region that eventually became central for the Silk Road.[13] Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe spread Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.[14][15] By the medieval period in Central Asia, nomadic communities exhibited isotopically diverse diets, suggesting a multitude of subsistence strategies.[16]
Nomadic pattern in season
Often traditional nomadic groups settle into a regular seasonal pattern of transhumance. An example of a normal nomadic cycle in the northern hemisphere is:
- Spring (early April to the end of June) – transition
- Summer (end of June to late September) – a higher plateau
- Autumn (mid-September to end of November) – transition
- Winter (from December to the end of March) – desert plains.[17]
The movements in this example are about 180 to 200 km. Camps are established in the same place each year; often semi-permanent shelters are built in at least one place on this migration route.
In sub-regions such as Chad, the nomadic pastoralist cycle is as follows:
- In the rainy season, the groups live in a village intended for a comfortable stay. The villages are often made of sturdy material as clay. Old men and women remain in this village when the other people move the herds in the dry season.
- In the dry season, the people move their herds to southern villages with a more temporary character. They then move inland, where they stay in tent camps.
In Chad, the sturdy villages are called hillé, the less sturdy villages are called dankhout and the tents ferik.[18]
David Christian's account
David Christian made the following observations about pastoralism.[19] The agriculturist lives from domesticated plants and the pastoralist lives from domesticated animals. Since animals are higher on the food chain, pastoralism supports a thinner population than agriculture. Pastoralism predominates where low rainfall makes farming impractical. Full pastoralism required the Secondary products revolution when animals began to be used for wool, milk, riding and traction as well as meat. Where grass is poor herds must be moved, which leads to nomadism. Some peoples are fully nomadic while others live in sheltered winter camps and lead their herds into the steppe in summer. Some nomads travel long distances, usually north in summer and south in winter. Near mountains, herds are led uphill in summer and downhill in winter (transhumance). Pastoralists often trade with or raid their agrarian neighbors.
Christian distinguished 'Inner Eurasia', which was pastoral with a few hunter-gatherers in the far north, from 'Outer Eurasia', a crescent of agrarian civilizations from Europe through India to China. High civilization is based on agriculture where tax-paying peasants support landed aristocrats, kings, cities, literacy and scholars. Pastoral societies are less developed and as a result, according to Christian, more egalitarian. One tribe would often dominate its neighbors, but these 'empires' usually broke up after a hundred years or so. The heartland of pastoralism is the
Around the world
Nomadic pastoralism was historically widespread throughout less fertile regions of Earth. It is found in areas of low rainfall such as the
The
The
In the Middle Hills and
The nomadic
The
In Chad, nomadic pastoralists include the
Cross-border pastoralism
Sometimes nomadic pastoralists move their herds across international borders in search of new grazing terrain or for trade. This cross-border activity can occasionally lead to tensions with national governments as this activity is often informal and beyond their control and regulation. In East Africa, for example, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels and the unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to Somalia, Kenya and Djibouti generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).[29] This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.[29] However, there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.[29]
There have been initiatives seeking to promote cross-border trade and also document it, in order to both stimulate regional growth and food security, but also to allow the effective vaccination of livestock.
See also
- Holistic management
References
- ^ Blench, Roger (2001). Pastoralists in the new millennium (PDF). FAO. pp. 11–12.
- ISBN 978-0-393-91847-2.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 20106474.
- S2CID 154397243.
- ^ L. Copeland; P. Wescombe (1966). Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon, p. 49. Impr. Catholique. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
- ^ Fleisch, Henri., Notes de Préhistoire Libanaise : 1) Ard es Saoude. 2) La Bekaa Nord. 3) Un polissoir en plein air. BSPF, vol. 63, 1966.
- ^ Sherratt, Andrew (1983), "The secondary exploitation of animals in the Old World" in (World Archaeology Volume 15, Issue 1, 1983 Special Issue: Transhumance and pastoralism)
- ^ Cribb, R (1991) Nomads in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
- ^ Oriental Institute of Chicago "Nomads, Tribes, and the State in the Ancient Near East: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives".
- ^ Perrot J. (1964), "Les deux premières campagnes de fouilles à Munhata" Syria XLI pp. 323-45
- ^ Mellaart, James (1975), The Neolithic of the Near East (London: Thames and Hudson), pp. 239-241
- ^ Zarins, Juris (1992) "Pastoral Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record," in O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov, eds. "Pastoralism in the Levant"
- PMID 24695428.
- ^ Gibbons, Ann (10 June 2015). "Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians". Science. AAAS.
- ^ Gibbons, Ann (21 February 2017). "Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population". Science.
- PMID 29581431.
- ^ Beck, Lois (1991) "Nomad: a year in the life of nomadic Qashqa'i tribesman in Iran" (University of California Press)
- ^ Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen5 April 2024
- ^ David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, 1998, pp 81-98 and passim
- S2CID 83080752.
- ISBN 978-3825830847.
- ^ NOMADS – The FACTS
- ^ Dale Eickelman, The Middle East and Central Asia. An Anthropological Approach. Fourth Edition. Prentice Hall, 2002, p. 11
- ^ Mongolia Today – online magazine Archived January 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- S2CID 157632052.
- ^ OCLC 965342516
- ISSN 0960-233X.
- PMID 27158190.
- ^ a b c d e Pavanello, Sara 2010. Working across borders - Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands. London: Overseas Development Institute