Saudi Arabia

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia المملكة العربية السعودية ( Arabic ) al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله Lā ilāha illa allāh, Muḥammadun rasūlu allāh "There is no god but God, Muhammad is the Messenger of God"[1][a] (shahada)
Anthem: النشيد الوطني السعودي "an-Našīd al-Waṭaniyy as-Suʿūdiyy" "Chant of the Saudi Nation"
Show globe Show map of Saudi Arabia
Capital and largest city	Riyadh 24°39′N 46°46′E / 24.650°N 46.767°E / 24.650; 46.767
Official languages	Arabic[5]
Religion	Sunni Islam (official)[6]
Demonym(s)	Saudi Saudi Arabian
Government	Unitary Islamic absolute monarchy
• King	Salman
• Crown Prince and Prime Minister	Mohammed bin Salman
Legislature	Consultative Assembly[b]
Establishment
• Emirate of Diriyah	22 February 1727
• Emirate of Nejd	1824
• Emirate of Riyadh	13 January 1902
• Emirate of Nejd and Hasa	15 January 1913
• Sultanate of Nejd	29 November 1921
• Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd	8 January 1926
• Unification and Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia	23 September 1932
• Current constitution	31 January 1992
Area
• Total	2,149,690[9] km2 (830,000 sq mi) (12th)
• Water (%)	0.7
Population
• 2022 census	32,175,224[10] (48th)
• Density	15/km2 (38.8/sq mi) (174th)
GDP (PPP)	2025 estimate
• Total	$2.230 trillion[11] (17th)
• Per capita	$61,923[11] (15th)
GDP (nominal)	2025 estimate
• Total	$1.084 trillion[11] (19th)
• Per capita	$30,099[11] (34th)
Gini (2013)	45.9[12] medium inequality
HDI (2023)	0.900[13] very high (37th)
Currency	Saudi riyal (SR)[c] (SAR)
Time zone	UTC+3 (AST)
Calling code	+966
ISO 3166 code	SA
Internet TLD	.sa السعودية.

Saudi Arabia,^[d] officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA),^[e] is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about 2,150,000 km² (830,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the largest in the Middle East, and the 12th-largest in the world. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; the Persian Gulf, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel. Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city is Riyadh; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam, Mecca and Medina. With a population of almost 32.2 million, Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in the Arab world.^[15][16]

Pre-Islamic Arabia, the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the prehistory of Saudi Arabia shows some of the earliest traces of human activity outside Africa.^[17] Islam, the world's second-largest religion,^[18] emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early seventh century. Islamic prophet Muhammad united the population of the Arabian Peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territories in North Africa, Central, South Asia and Iberia within decades.^[19][20][21] Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates, as well as numerous other dynasties in Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by

History

Main article: History of Saudi Arabia

Prehistory

There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago.^[44] A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about 75,000 years ago across the Bab-el-Mandeb connecting the Horn of Africa and Arabia.^[45] The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of humanity. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the Quaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a rich Lower Paleolithic record, and the quantity of Oldowan-like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia.^[46]

In the Neolithic period, prominent cultures such as Al-Magar, whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills.^[47] The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse, during the Neolithic period.^[48][49] Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants.^[50]

In November 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the Canaan Dog) and wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, a hilly region of northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.^[51]

At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the Bronze Age; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours.^[52]

In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a 350,000-year-old

Nefud Desert.^{[53][54][55][56]}

Pre-Islamic

Main article: Pre-Islamic Arabia

The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the Ubaid period at Dosariyah. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium.^[58] The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of Dilmun in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from Uruk refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of Saudi Arabia, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that Tarout Island was the main port and the capital of Dilmun.^[57] Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a form of hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun.^[57]

By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered.^[57]

Al Madinah Region in the Hejaz. A UNESCO World Heritage Site

since 2008.

By the late

Midianites were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region.^[63]

Al-'Ula in the Hejaz (6th–4th century BC), it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of the Lihyanite kingdom. The original statue was painted with white. (Louvre Museum, Paris)^[64]

At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of Lihyan.^[65][66] During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain.^[65] In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road.^[67] The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from Yathrib in the south and parts of the Levant in the north.^[68] In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.^[69]

The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea, and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.^[70]

Middle Ages and rise of Islam

Main article: Caliphate

Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies.^[73] The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 CE. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity.^[74] Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west, to parts of Central and South Asia in the east, in a matter of decades.^[19][20][21] Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.^[74]

Arabs originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz in particular, founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and the Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.^[75][76]

For much of the 10th century, the

Isma'ili-Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone.^[77] In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Bahrain and al-Hasa with the help of the Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty.^[78][79] The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian Desert.^[80] They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253.^[81] Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320.^[82] The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century.^[83][84] The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507.^[83] Al-Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came under Ottoman suzerainty. The Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control.^[85] Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.^[86][87]

Ottoman Hejaz and Portuguese era

Main articles:

Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia, Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts, and Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz,

Aseer and Al-Ahsa) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.^[88] The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority.^[89][90] These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an, including the cities of Ma'an and Aqaba

.

Saud dynasty and unification

See also: Unification of Saudi Arabia

first Saudi State

in 1810

The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of

Muhammad bin Saud on 22 February 1727.^[91][92] In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab,^[93] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.^[94] This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.^[95]

The

Emirate of Nejd was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid, who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.^[75]

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,

Faisal Al-Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.^[100]

With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.

In 1916, with the encouragement and support of

Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.^[101] Although the revolt failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became King of Hejaz.^[102]

Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz.^[103] For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units.^[75]

After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the

Prince Faisal declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.^[75] That date is now a national holiday called Saudi National Day.^[105]

20th century

Main article: Modern history of Saudi Arabia

The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.

Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid.^[108]

in Cairo, 1969

By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.

ulema a greater role in government.^[112] Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.^[113]

In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.^[114] King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd, who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.^[75] The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family^[75] leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.^[115]

In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and

invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene.^[75] King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as the Gulf War (1990–1991).^[107]

Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to

an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing near the port of Aden, Yemen. 15 of the hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks were Saudi nationals.^[117] Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.^[118]

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."^[75]

In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah, assumed the role of de facto regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").^[119]

21st century

Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar.^[120] In February–April 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part.^[75]

In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.^[75]

On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people.^[121] Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.^[122]

Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own

2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to the Shura Council.^[132]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the

Arabian Plate.^[136]

Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the

Wadis, non-permanent rivers, however, are very numerous throughout the kingdom. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.^[137] There are approximately 1,300 islands in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.^[139]

The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the

Aseer is mountainous and contains the 3002 m (9849 ft) Jabal Ferwa, which is the highest point in the country.^[137] Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes.^[133] Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi).^[134]

Except for the southwestern regions such as Aseer, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high day-time temperatures during the summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 45 °C (113 °F) but can be as high as 54 °C (129 °F). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 °C (32 °F) with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of Tabuk Province, is not uncommon.^[140] The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), was measured in Turaif.^[141] Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently.^[142]

In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F). Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean

monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation.^[143]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Saudi Arabia

The critically endangered Arabian leopard

The Arabian horse is native to Arabia, and an important element of traditional Arabian folklore.

Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions:

Arabian camel

, sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc.

The Red Sea is a rich and diverse

1,200 species of fish^[149] around 10% of which are endemic.^[150] This also includes 42 species of deep water fish.^[149] The rich diversity is partly owed to the 2000 km (1240 mi) of coral reef extending along the coastline; these fringing reefs are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species, including some of the 44 species of shark. There are many offshore reefs including several atolls

. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.

Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (

Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.^[137]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Saudi Arabia

Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
King (r. 2015–present)

Mohammed bin Salman
Crown Prince and Prime Minister

Saudi Arabia is an

Democracy Index,^[158] and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023.^[159] According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices, Saudi Arabia is the least democratic country in the Middle East.^[160]

In the absence of national elections and political parties,[151] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.^[161] Outside of the Al Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and members of important commercial families on major decisions.^[137] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.^[162]

By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.^[163] In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.^[137] In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.^[164] In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.^[164] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post;^[165][166] however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.^[167]

The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regionalist particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).^[168] Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in violent incidents in the country.^[120] However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.^[169]

Monarchy and royal family

Main article: House of Saud

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions

Mohammed Bin Salman, the current prime minister since 2022.^[172] The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government.^[173] The number of princes is estimated to be at least 7000, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud.^[174] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,^[151] as are the 13 regional governorships.^[175]

2017 Saudi Arabian purge

.

The Saudi government

Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family)^[188] in an interview in 2001.^[189]

In its Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010, Transparency International gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").^[190] Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, were arrested in an anti-corruption campaign in November 2017.^[191]

Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

Polish Senate

, 26 May 2014

Saudi Arabia is unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government.^[192] The preferred ulema are of the Salafi movement. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.^[193] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems^[194] and a monopoly of authority in religious and social morals.^[195]

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline.^[196] However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.^[197] The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:^[112] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system^[197] and allowed to enforce the stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.^[112] After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.^[198]

The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,^[199] the country's leading religious family.^[195] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th-century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.^[200] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)^[201] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"^[202] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.^[193] The pact, which persists to this day,^[202] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority^[203] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.^[204] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,^[205] they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.^[195]

Legal system

Main article: Legal system of Saudi Arabia

See also: Crime in Saudi Arabia

The primary source of law is the Islamic

Hanbali school of jurisprudence (fiqh) found in pre-modern texts^[209] and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith.^[210] However, in 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms which will lead to an entirely codified law that eliminates discrepancies.^[211]

Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia.[170] Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labour, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.^[212] Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.^[213] Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.^[214]

Retaliatory punishments, or

diyya (blood money), by the perpetrator.^[216]

Administrative divisions

Main articles:

Governorates of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13

marakiz

Tabuk

Bahah —–

Jawf

Madinah

Makkah

Jizan

Ha'il

Northern
Borders

Asir

Qasim

Riyadh

Najran

Eastern Province

The foreign policy of Saudi Arabia is officially focused on cooperation with the oil-exporting

Since co-founding OPEC in 1960, Saudi Arabia's oil pricing policy has officially aimed to stabilize the world oil market and moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize Western economies.^[38][221] In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an oil embargo against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and other Western nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War.^[222] The embargo caused an oil crisis with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.^[223]

Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies;^{[224][225][226]} the U.S. has been the most influential foreign power in the kingdom since the end of World War II.^[227] Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Gulf War, particularly the stationing of American troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally.^[228] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S.; for example, it refused to support or participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.^[137] Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia remains a key strategic ally of the U.S. and a leading importer of American arms.^[229] In 2017, President Donald Trump and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia to purchase arms from the United States totaling $350 billion over 10 years.^[230][231]

China and Saudi Arabia's relationship has grown significantly in recent decades. A significant number of Saudi Arabians have also expressed a positive view of China.^{[232][233][234]} In February 2019, Crown Prince Mohammad defended China's Xinjiang internment camps for Uyghur Muslims.^[235][236] According to The Diplomat, Saudi Arabia's human rights record has "come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves."^[237]

Saudi Arabia has traditionally sought to preserve the regional status quo by using its financial, diplomatic, and military resources to limit the effects of revolutionary uprisings in neighboring countries.^[238] It has been engaged in a proxy conflict with Iran since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, which had called for the overthrow of monarchies and secular governments. The consequences of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the Arab Spring (2010–2012) led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of Iran's influence in the region.^[239] These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah,^[198] who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".^[240]

Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the

In 2017, as part of its nuclear power programme, Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producing nuclear fuel.^[242] Subsequently, the kingdom has been exploring foreign partnerships for constructing its first civil nuclear reactors, including with the United States, China, Russia, South Korea, and France.^[243]

Saudi Arabia has been accused of sponsoring Islamic terrorism.

However, since 2016 the kingdom began backing away from Islamist ideologies.[257] Several reforms took place including curbing the powers of religious police,^[258] and stopping funding mosques in foreign countries.^[259]

Al-Riyadh-class frigate of the Royal Saudi Navy

Eurofighter Typhoon of the Royal Saudi Air Force

Saudi Arabia has one of the highest percentages of military expenditure in the world, spending around 7% of its GDP in its military, according to the 2023 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimate, which places it as the world's fifth largest military spender behind the United States, Russia, India and China, and the world's second largest arms importer from 2019 to 2023, receiving 15 per cent of all U.S. arms exports.^[263][264] Spending on defence and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$78.4 billion as of 2019.^[265] According to the BICC, Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel.^[266] Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations.^[267]

The kingdom has a long-standing military relationship with Pakistan; it has long been speculated that Saudi Arabia secretly funded Pakistan's atomic bomb programme and seeks to purchase atomic weapons from Pakistan in the near future.^[268][269]

In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support its intervention in the civil war in neighbouring Yemen.^[270][271] By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies captured Aden and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital city Sanaa. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia.^[272] The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis.^[273][274] As of 2024, Saudi Arabia had 2,500 troops actively participating in the conflict in Yemen.^[275]

The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by international organizations and governments for violating human rights.^[276] The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" in Freedom House's annual survey of political and civil rights.^[277] According to Amnesty International, security forces torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them.^[278] Saudi Arabia abstained from the UN vote adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, saying it contradicted Sharia.^[279] Mass executions, such as those carried out in 2016, 2019, and 2022, have been condemned by international rights groups.^[280]

Since 2001, Saudi Arabia has engaged in internet censorship. Most censorship falls into two categories: one based on censoring "immorality" (mostly pornographic and LGBT-supportive sites along with sites promoting any religious ideology other than Sunni Islam) and one based on a blacklist run by Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Media, which primarily censors sites critical of the regime or associated with parties that are opposed to or opposed by Saudi Arabia.^{[281][282][283]}

Saudi Arabian law does not recognize

Historically, Saudi women faced discrimination in many aspects of their lives and under the male guardianship system were effectively treated as legal minors.^[295] The treatment of women had been referred to as "sex segregation"^[296][297] and "gender apartheid".^[298][299] As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressive affirmative action programmes", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board of Saudi Aramco.^[300] In June 2018, the Saudi government issued a law officially allowing women to drive.^[301] However, an investigation by The Guardian newspaper in 2025 found that the Dar al-Reaya, officially "care homes", continued to be effectively "jails" for women whose families wish to institutionalize them for disobedience, extramarital sexual relations or being absent from home. Some women are sent to Dar al-Reaya to protect a family's reputation after a woman is sexually abused by a brother or father. Treatment was reported to be "hellish": very harsh, with solitary confinement, flogging, and no visits or contact.^[302]

Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of slave labour and sexual exploitation.^[303] Migrants from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under the kafala system which human rights groups say is linked to abuses including slavery.^[304][305]

With

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves". Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.6×10¹⁰ m³) between 1987 and 1988.^[317] Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil).^[318]

From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities."

In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual hajj pilgrims.^[316] Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City) in an effort to diversify the economy and provide jobs. The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP.

Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road.^{[322][323][324][325]}

Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any.^[326] The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.^{[327][328][329]} Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor.^[330] Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous^[331] because of the risk of being arrested.

The unexpected impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under 'Vision 2030' were also expected to be affected.^[332] In May 2020, the Finance Minister of Saudi Arabia admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets. Mohammed Al-Jadaan said that the country will take "painful" measures and keep all options open to deal with the impact.^[333]

In July 2024 Saudi Arabia's Renewable Energy Localisation Company (RELC) has formed three joint ventures with Chinese companies to advance the kingdom's clean energy infrastructure. As part of Saudi Arabia's 2030 targets, the Public Investment Fund is actively promoting the localization of renewable energy components. RELC, a division of the sovereign fund, facilitates partnerships between global manufacturers and Saudi private sector firms to strengthen local supply chains. The joint ventures include partnerships with Envision Energy for wind turbine components, Jinko Solar for photovoltaic cells, and Lumetech for solar photovoltaic ingots and wafers. These initiatives aim to localize up to 75% of the components used in Saudi Arabia's renewable projects by 2030, positioning the country as a major global exporter of renewable technologies.^[334]

Saudi Minister of Economy and Planning, Faisal Al Ibrahim, emphasized Saudi Arabia's progress in global climate goals at the 2024 High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development in New York, citing over 80 initiatives and investments exceeding $180 billion for the country's green economy, as reported by Saudi Gazette. He highlighted the alignment of these efforts with Vision 2030 objectives, focusing on local sustainability, sector integration, and societal advancement.^[335]

Initial attempts to develop dairy farming on a commercial scale occurred in the

The kingdom has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East. Milk production boasts a remarkably productive annual rate of 6,800 litres (1,800 US gallons) per cow, one of the highest in the world. The local dairy manufacturing company Almarai is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East.^[341]

The olive tree is indigenous to Saudi Arabia. The Al Jouf region has millions of olive trees, and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees.^[342] Al-Jouf has the largest olive farm in the world with 7,713 hectares.^[343]

As part of the country's ongoing plan to plant 100 million mangrove seedlings along its coastlines, the National Centre for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification has announced that it has planted 13M seedlings.^[344]

One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia is water scarcity. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawater desalination, water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country.^[345] Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence.^[346][347] As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States,^[348][349] Argentina,^[350] and Africa.^{[351][352][353][354]} Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries.^[355][356]

According to the

In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourism

The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts.[364] In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi.^[365] In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK or Schengen visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival.^[366]

Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022,^[367] making it the fourth most populous country in the Arab world.^[368] Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants,^[369] mostly from the Middle East, Asia, and Africa.^[370]

The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million.^[371] For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually;^[372] it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year,^[369] slightly higher than the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, the Saudi people are quite young by global standards, with over half the population under 25 years old.^[373]

The ethnic composition of Saudi citizens is 90%

The official language is Arabic.^[9][5] There are four main regional dialect groups spoken by Saudis: Najdi (about 14.6 million speakers^[392]), Hejazi (about 10.3 million speakers^[393]), Gulf (about 0.96 million speakers^[394]) including Baharna dialects, and Southern Hejaz and Tihama^[395] dialects. Faifi is spoken by about 50000. The Mehri language is also spoken by around 20000 Mehri citizens.^[396] Saudi Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community, amounting to around 100000 speakers. The large expatriate communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous of which, according to 2018 data, are Bengali (~1 500000), Tagalog (~900000), Punjabi (~800000), Urdu (~740000), Egyptian Arabic (~600000), Rohingya, North Levantine Arabic (both ~500000)^[397] and Malayalam.^[398]

Virtually all Saudi citizens

Education is free at all levels, although higher education is restricted to citizens only.^[421] The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. Classes are segregated by sex. At the secondary level, students are able to choose from three types of schools: general education, vocational and technical, or religious.^[422] The rate of literacy is 99% among males and 96% among females in 2020.^[423][424] Youth literacy rose to approximately 99.5% for both sexes.^[425][426]

Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of

The

In 2018, Saudi Arabia ranked 28th worldwide in terms of high-quality research output according to the scientific journal Nature.^[430] Saudi Arabia spends 9% of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 5%.^[431] Saudi Arabia was ranked 44th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, up from 68th in 2019.^{[432][433][434]}

The Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts.^[435][436] Following the 9/11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernizing the education system through the "Tatweer" reform programme.^[435] The Tatweer programme is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyse and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training.^[437][438]

In 2021, the

Washington Post reported on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered antisemitic and sexist. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of homosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, as well as the expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Antisemitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the Anti-Defamation League, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians, and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down. The U.S. State Department expressed in an e-mail that it welcomed the changes. The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs supports a training programme for Saudi teachers.^[439]

Health care

Main articles: Health in Saudi Arabia and Health care in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has a national health care system in which the government provides free health care services through government agencies. Saudi Arabia has been ranked among the 26 best countries in providing high quality healthcare.^[440] The Ministry of Health is the major government agency entrusted with the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative health care. The ministry's origins can be traced to 1925, when several regional health departments were established, with the first in Makkah. The various healthcare institutions were merged to become a ministerial body in 1950.^[441] The Health Ministry created a friendly competition between each of the districts and between different medical services and hospitals. This idea resulted in the creation of the "Ada'a" project launched in 2016. The new system is a nationwide performance indicator, for services and hospitals. Waiting times and other major measurements improved dramatically across the kingdom.^[442]

A new strategy has been developed by the ministry, known as Diet and Physical Activity Strategy or DPAS for short,^[443] to address bad lifestyle choices. The ministry advised that there should be a tax increase on unhealthy food, drink, and cigarettes. This additional tax could be used to improve healthcare offerings. The tax was implemented in 2017.^[444] As part of the same strategy, calorie labels were added in 2019 to some food and drink products. Ingredients were also listed as an aim to reduce obesity and inform citizens with health issues to manage their diet.^[445] As part of the ongoing focus on tackling obesity, women-only gyms were allowed to open in 2017. Sports offered in each of these gyms include bodybuilding, running and swimming to maintain higher standards of health.^[446][447]

Smoking in all age groups is widespread. In 2009 the lowest median percentage of smokers was university students (~13.5%) while the highest was elderly people (~25%). The study also found the median percentage of male smokers to be much higher than that of females (~26.5% for males, ~9% for females). Before 2010, Saudi Arabia had no policies banning or restricting smoking.

The MOH has been awarded "Healthy City" certificates by the

Unayzah and Riyadh Al Khabra as 4th and 5th Healthy Cities in Saudi Arabia.^[448]

The WHO had earlier classified three Saudi Arabian cities,

Al-Baha has also been classified as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization.^[449]

In May 2019, the then Saudi Minister of Health

Tawfiq bin Fawzan AlRabiah received a global award on behalf of the Kingdom for combating smoking through social awareness, treatment, and application of regulations.^[450] The award was presented as part of the 72nd session of the World Health Assembly, held in Geneva in May 2019. After becoming one of the first nations to ratify the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2005, it plans to reduce tobacco use from 12.7% in 2017, to 5% in 2030.^[450]

Saudi Arabia has a life expectancy of 78 years (77 for males and 80 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2022 from the World Bank.[451] Infant mortality in 2022 was 6 per 1000 (6 for males and 5 for females).^[451] In 2022, 71.8% of the adult population was overweight and 40.6% was obese.^[452]

On May 18, 2025, Saudi Arabia announced the openning of the world's first AI-powered doctor clinic in Al Ahsa. The clinic was developed collaboratively by Shanghai-based Synyi AI and the local Almoosa Health Group, the clinic introduces "Dr. Hua," an AI-driven virtual physician capable of independently diagnosing and prescribing treatments. Patients via tablet, describe symptoms and undergoing diagnostic tests like cardiograms and X-rays, facilitated by human medical staff. While Dr. Hua autonomously formulates treatment plans, each is reviewed and approved by a licensed human doctor to ensure accuracy and safety.^[453]

Foreigners

See also:

Migrant workers in the Gulf region, and Kafala system

The Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33% (10.1 million).

Indian: 1.5 million, Pakistani: 1.3 million,^[456] Egyptian: 900000, Yemeni: 800000, Bangladeshi: 400000, Filipino: 500000, Jordanian/Palestinian: 260000, Indonesian: 250000, Sri Lankan: 350000, Sudanese: 250000, Syrian: 100000 and Turkish: 80000.^[457]

According to The Guardian, as of 2013^[update] there were more than half a million foreign-born domestic workers. Most have backgrounds in poverty and come from Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.^[458] To go to work in Saudi Arabia, they must often pay large sums to recruitment agencies in their home countries. The agencies then handle the necessary legal paperwork.^[459]

As the Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country.^[460] Saudi Arabia expelled 800000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991^[461] and has built a Saudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.^[462] In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticized Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue.^[463]

Over 500000

COVID-19 in the kingdom. They were beaten, tortured, and electrocuted. Many of the migrants died due to heatstroke or by attempting suicide, after being severely beaten and tortured. The migrants lack proper living conditions, provision of food and water.^[465]

Foreigners cannot apply for

1951 UN Refugee Convention.^[470]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Saudi Arabia

Mosque of the Prophet in Medina containing the tomb of Muhammad

Saudi Arabia has millennia-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from

Arab traditions as well as its historical role as an ancient trade centre.^[471] The Kingdom also has a very family-oriented culture^[472] with an emphasis on preserving family traditions and kinship ties.^[473]

Religion in society

Religion is a core aspect of everyday life in Saudi Arabia; it plays a dominant role in the country's governance and legal system, and deeply influences culture and daily life, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s.[474] The Hejaz region, where the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of the Ḥajj pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam.^[475][i]

Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. There is no law that requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government's interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for foreigners, deportation.

Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them."^[491]

Throughout history, women did not have equal rights to men in the kingdom; the

Under previous Saudi law, all females were required to have a male guardian (wali), typically a father, brother, husband, or uncle (mahram). In 2019, this law was partially amended to exclude women over 21 years old from the requirement of a male guardian.^[495] The amendment also granted women rights in relation to the guardianship of minor children.^[495][496] Previously, girls and women were forbidden from travelling, conducting official business, or undergoing certain medical procedures without permission from their male guardians.^[497] In 2019, Saudi Arabia allowed women to travel abroad, register for divorce or marriage, and apply for official documents without the permission of a male guardian.

In 2006, Wajeha al-Huwaider, a leading Saudi feminist and journalist said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone."^[498] Following this, Saudi Arabia implemented the anti-domestic violence law in 2014.^[499] Furthermore, between 2017 and 2020, the country addressed issues of mobility, sexual harassment, pensions, and employment-discrimination protections.^{[500][501][502]} al-Huwaider and other female activists have applauded the general direction in which the country was headed.^[503]

Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women

Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to

In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman promised to return Saudi Arabia to the "moderate Islam" of the era before the 1979 Iranian revolution.[524] A new centre, the King Salman Complex for the Prophet's Hadith, was established that year to monitor interpretations of the Prophet Mohammed's hadiths to prevent them being used to justifying terrorism.^[525]

In March 2018, the Crown Prince met the Archbishop of Canterbury during a visit to the UK, pledging to promote interfaith dialogue. In Riyadh the following month King Salman met the head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue.^[526] In July 2019, UNESCO signed a letter with the Saudi Minister of Culture in which Saudi Arabia contributed US$25 million to UNESCO for the preservation of heritage.^[527]

On November 5, 2024, archeologists published the news of an ancient city discovered in the Saudi oasis of Khaybar. The city named al-Natah, that dates back some 4,000 years, was inhabited during the Bronze Age around 2,400 BC, and had about 500 houses. Not far, a cluster of graves was found, within them metal weapons.^[528]

Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle-length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by an agal) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of a finer cotton, also held in place by an agal) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. In public women are required to wear a black abaya or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head in respect of their religion. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas of the country. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques.^[529]

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms.^[530] During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theatres. However, with King Abdullah and King Salman's reforms, cinemas re-opened,^[531] including one in KAUST.

From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent of the oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). The national dance is a native sword dance known as ardah. Originating from Najd, it involves lines or circles of men and singing poetry.^[532] Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is popular.^[137]

Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several

Developments in the arts in 2018 included Saudi Arabia's debut appearances at the Cannes Film Festival and the Venice Biennale.^[540]

Television was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 1954. Saudi Arabia is a major market for

Most of the early newspapers in the Persian Gulf region were established in Saudi Arabia.[543] The first newspaper founded in the country and in the Persian Gulf area is Al Fallah, which was launched in 1920,^[543] and the first English-language newspaper is Arab News, which was launched in 1975.^[544] All of the newspapers published in Saudi Arabia are privately owned.^[545]

According to World Bank, as of 2020, 98% of the population of Saudi Arabia are internet users which puts it in the 8th rank among countries with the highest percentage of internet users.^[546] Saudi Arabia has one of the fastest 5G internet speeds in the world.^[547][548] The kingdom is the 27th largest market for e-commerce with a revenue of US$8 billion in 2021.^[549]

Women's sport is controversial because of the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities,^[553] however the restrictions have eased.^{[554][555][556]} Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities.^[557] Since 2020, the progress of women's integration into the Saudi sport scene began to develop rapidly.^[558][559] 25 Saudi sport federations established a national women's team,^[560] including a national football and basketball team. In November 2020, the Saudi Arabian Football Federation announced the launch of the first nationwide Saudi women's premier league.^[561]

In its vision for modernization, the nation has introduced many international sporting events, bringing sports stars to the kingdom. However, in August 2019, the kingdom's strategy received criticism for appearing as a method of sportswashing soon after Saudi's US-based 2018 lobbying campaign foreign registration documentations got published online. The documents showed Saudi Arabia as allegedly implementing a sportswashing strategy, including meetings and official calls with authorities of associations like Major League Soccer, World Wrestling Entertainment, and the National Basketball Association.^[562]

In December 2024, Saudi Arabia was confirmed as host of the 2034 FIFA World Cup.^[563] Developments of stadiums to be used for the event are ongoing. There are reportedly 11 new stadiums being built and airports are scheduled to be expanded to accommodate the expected influx of passengers.^[564]