Afghanistan

Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan د افغانستان اسلامي امارت ( Dari ) Imārat-i Islāmī-yi Afğānistān
Flag Emblem
Motto: لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh "There is no god but Shahadah)
Anthem: دا د باتورانو کور "Dā Də Bātorāno Kor" "This Is the Home of the Brave"[2]
theocratic Islamic emirate[14]
• Supreme Leader	Hibatullah Akhundzada
• Prime Minister	Hasan Akhund (acting)
• Chief Justice	Abdul Hakim Haqqani
Legislature	None 27 May 1863
• Anglo-Afghan Agreement	26 May 1879
• Independence	19 August 1919
• Kingdom	9 June 1926
• Republic	17 July 1973
• Democratic Republic	27–28 April 1978
• Islamic State	28 April 1992
• Islamic Emirate	27 September 1996
• Islamic Republic	26 January 2004
• Restoration of Islamic Emirate	15 August 2021
Afghanistan Time)
	DST is not observed[25]
ISO 3166 code	AF
Internet TLD	.af

Afghanistan,^[d] officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,^[e] is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia,^[26] it is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south,^[f] Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. Occupying 652,864 square kilometers (252,072 sq mi) of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with plains in the north and the southwest, which are separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range. Kabul is the country's largest city and serves as its capital. According to the World Population review, as of 2021^[update], Afghanistan's population is 40.2 million.^[6] The National Statistics Information Authority of Afghanistan estimated the population to be 32.9 million as of 2020^[update].^[28]

was established.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including

Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including

.

Etymology

Some scholars suggest that the

Historically, the ethnonym Afghān was used to refer to ethnic

The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans / Pashtuns, afāghina, sing. afghān) can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated the easternmost part of the

Kartid realm. This name was later used for certain regions in the Ṣafavid and Mughal empires that were inhabited by Afghans. While based on a state-supporting elite of Abdālī / Durrānī Afghans, the Sadūzāʾī Durrānī polity

that came into being in 1160 / 1747 was not called Afghanistan in its own day. The name became a state designation only during the colonial intervention of the nineteenth century.

The term "Afghanistan" was officially used in 1855, when the British recognized Dost Mohammad Khan as king of Afghanistan.^[47]

History

Prehistory and antiquity

Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to

After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many

Scythian belt depicting Dionysus, from Tillya Tepe in the ancient region of Bactria

The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia, and north to the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva in present-day Uzbekistan.^[60] Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading lapis lazuli stones^[61] mainly from the Badakhshan region.

During the first century BCE, the

Medieval period

By the 11th century,

In 1219 CE,

In the early 16th century,

Hotak Dynasty

In 1709,

.

In 1738, Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar in the siege of Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah Hussain Hotak. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces invaded India, Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16-year-old commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.^[94][95]

Durrani Empire

After the death of Nader Shah in 1747,

once again, and captured it.

Ahmad Shah

expansion.

Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772, and a civil war over succession followed, with his named successor, Timur Shah Durrani succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza.^[101] Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders in Kabul and Kandahar. One of Timur Shah's reforms was to move the capital of the Durrani Empire from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur Shah fought multiple series of rebellions to consolidate the empire, and he also led campaigns into Punjab against the Sikhs like his father, though more successfully. The most prominent example of his battles during this campaign was when he led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani – with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen – against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs lost over 30,000 in this battle and staged a Durrani resurgence in the Punjab region^[102] The Durranis lost Multan in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death. Following this victory by Timur Shah, Timur Shah was able to lay siege to Multan and recapture it,^[103] incorporating it into the Durrani Empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until the Siege of Multan (1818). Timur Shah was succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani after his death on in May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which plunged the empire in civil war over succession crises.^[104]

Barakzai dynasty and British wars

Emirate of Herat

seen as well.

By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the

With the collapse of the Durrani Empire, and the exile of the

In 1839, a

and internal leaders pressured the Afghans to invade India.

Dost Mohammad died in June 1863, a few weeks after his successful

During the

King of Afghanistan

in June 1926.

After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the

Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional

King Zahir

, the last reigning monarch of Afghanistan, who reigned from 1933 until 1973

Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of

Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. Afghanistan was neither a participant in

, abolishing the monarchy.

Democratic Republic and Soviet war

In April 1978, the communist

In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by then-prime minister

The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The

Post–Cold War conflict

Another civil war broke out after the

]

After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum formed the Northern Alliance, later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, Pervez Musharraf, began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.^{[173][161][174][175][176][excessive citations]} By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the northeast. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers in Panjshir Valley. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.^[177]

US invasion and Islamic Republic

In October 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over Osama bin Laden, the prime suspect of the September 11 attacks, who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating his al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan.^{[178][179][180]} The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion.^[181][182] During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end.^[183]

In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the

The Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name

On 19 February 2020, the

Second Taliban era

NATO Secretary General

According to the Costs of War Project, 176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including 46,319 civilians, between 2001 and 2021.^[222] According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, at least 212,191 people were killed in the conflict.^[223] Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in some regions^{[224][225][226]} amid fighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the Islamic State, as well as an anti-Taliban Republican insurgency.^[227]

The Taliban government is led by

Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted their payments.^[236][237] More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage in October 2021.^[238] Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing widespread famine due to an economic and banking crisis.^[239] The Taliban have significantly tackled corruption, now being placed as 150th on the corruption watchdog perception index. The Taliban have also reportedly reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas.^[240] At the same time, the human rights situation in the country has deteriorated.^[241] Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan;^[242] however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.^[243]

In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the

Geography

Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.

once wrote about the country:

Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its discord, the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.

At over 652,864 km² (252,072 sq mi),

The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins.

along the Amu River bank, at 258 m (846 ft) above sea level.

Despite having numerous rivers and

The northeastern Hindu Kush

Climate

Afghanistan has a

Biodiversity

Several types of

The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as

Demographics

The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority,^[279] whereas the UN estimates over 38.0 million.^[280] In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5 million.^[281] About 23.9% of them are urbanite, 71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.^[282] An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring Pakistan and Iran, most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years.

The current population growth rate is 2.37%,^[20] one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue.^[283] The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan.^[284] Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.^[285] Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down.^{[citation needed]} The Gini coefficient in 2008 was 27.8.^[286]

Ethnicity and languages

According to CIA World Factbook, Dari Persian is spoken by 78% (L1 + L2) and functions as the lingua franca, while Pashto is spoken by 50%, Uzbek 10%, English 5%, Turkmen 2%, Urdu 2%, Pashayi 1%, Nuristani 1%, Arabic 1%, and Balochi 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani.^[20]

When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand

Religion

Blue Mosque in Mazar-i-Sharif is the largest mosque

in Afghanistan.

The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim

Afghan Sikhs and Hindus are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar)^[298][299] accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs.^[300] According to Deutsche Welle in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.^[301]

There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan, living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced to leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known exception, Herat-born Zablon Simintov. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. He left the country for the US after the second Taliban takeover. A woman who left shortly after him has since been identified as the likely last Jew in Afghanistan.^{[302][303][304]}

Urbanization

As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than Cambodia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital Kabul, due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.^[307] Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.^[308]

The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namely Kandahar in the south, Herat in the west, Mazar-i-Sharif, Kunduz in the north, and Jalalabad in the east.^[282]

Education

The top universities in Afghanistan are the

Khost University

in the east.

After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female education would continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed for some time, it was announced that secondary education would be reopened shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was rescinded and schools for older girls remained closed.[315] Despite the ban, six provinces, Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-I-Pul, Faryab, and the Day Kundi, still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.^[316][317] In December 2023, investigations were being held by the United Nations on the claim that Afghan girls of all ages were allowed to study at religious schools.^[318]

Health

According to the

There are over 100

In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment.

It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility.[324] The disability rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war.^[325] It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs.^[326][327] Non-governmental charities such as Save the Children and Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures.^[328]

Governance

Following the effective collapse of the

A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the

Development of Taliban government

Main article:

Government of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

See also: Cabinet of Afghanistan § Islamic Emirate (2021–present)

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2023)

Interior Minister

Mullah Yaqoob
Second Deputy Leader and Acting Defense Minister

Abdul Ghani Baradar
Third Deputy Leader and Acting First Deputy Prime Minister

On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin party, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, met with both Hamid Karzai, the former President of Afghanistan, and Abdullah Abdullah, the former chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former Chief Executive, in Doha, Qatar, with the aim of forming a national unity government.^[336][337] President Ashraf Ghani, having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either Tajikistan or Uzbekistan, emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan.^[338][339] Many figures within the Taliban generally agreed that continuation of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan may, if correctly applied, be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their objections to the former government were political, and not religious.^[340]

Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after

Arg in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head of government as Prime Minister, while other important positions would go to Sirajuddin Haqqani and Mullah Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the cabinet.^[341]

In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of Saayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out of Kandahar. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as Prime Minister. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body known as the Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. Abdul Hakim Haqqani is likely to be promoted to Chief Justice. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan.^[342] Government formation was delayed due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.^[343] It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. This culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan.^[344]

As of early September 2021, the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to be men-only. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women,

protested in Herat and Kabul, calling for women to be included.^[345] The acting Cabinet announced on 7 September was men-only, and the Ministry of Women's Affairs appeared to have been abolished.^[329]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Afghanistan and Districts of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (

wilayat).^[346] Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial districts

, each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.

The

provincial governors are now appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan, and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors.^[347] The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years.^[348]

The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.

According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government.[349]

The 34 provinces in alphabetical order are:

1. Badakhshan
2. Badghis
3. Baghlan
4. Balkh
5. Bamyan
6. Daykundi
7. Farah
8. Faryab
9. Ghazni
10. Ghor
11. Helmand
12. Herat
13. Jowzjan
14. Kabul
15. Kandahar
16. Kapisa
17. Khost
18. Kunar
19. Kunduz
20. Laghman
21. Logar
22. Nangarhar
23. Nimruz
24. Nuristan
25. Oruzgan
26. Paktia
27. Paktika
28. Panjshir
29. Parwan
30. Samangan
31. Sar-e Pol
32. Takhar
33. Wardak
34. Zabul

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Afghanistan

See also: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)

Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946.^[350] Historically, Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and India, with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950.^[351] Relations with Pakistan have often been tense for various reasons such as the Durand Line border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.

The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally

Strategic Partnership Agreement in which Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally.^[354] Such qualification was rescinded by US President Joe Biden in July 2022.^[355]

Military

For broader coverage of this topic, see Afghan Armed Forces.

The

Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan captured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the Afghan National Security Forces following the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion.^[356][357]

Human rights

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General and cited sources

• Mehta, Jaswant Lal (January 2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813. Sterling Publishers.
  ISBN 9781932705546
  .

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Afghanistan

See also: Bibliography of the history of Central Asia

• Barfield, Thomas (2012). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History. Princeton University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-691-15441-1
  .
• Bleaney, C. H; Gallego, María Ángeles (2006). Afghanistan: a bibliography. BRILL.
  ISBN 978-90-04-14532-0
  .
• Clements, Frank (2003). Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
  ISBN 978-1-85109-402-8
  .
• ISBN 978-0-19-577634-8
  .
• Ewans, Martin (2002). Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics. Curzon Press.
  ISBN 0060505087
  .
• Fowler, Corinne (2007). Chasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British Ideas About Afghanistan. Rodopi.
  ISBN 978-90-420-2262-1
  .
• Griffiths, John C (2001). Afghanistan: a History of Conflict. Carlton Books.
  ISBN 978-1-84222-597-4
  .
• ISBN 978-1-58736-169-2
  .
• Hopkins, B.D. (2008). The Making of Modern Afghanistan. Palgrave Macmillan.
  ISBN 978-0-230-55421-4
  .
• Johnson, Robert (2011). The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-979856-8
  .
• Levi, Peter (1972). The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan. Collins.
  ISBN 978-0-00-211042-6
  .
• ISBN 978-1-4021-7278-6
  .
• Olson, Gillia M (2005). Afghanistan. Capstone Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7368-2685-3
  .
• Omrani, Bijan; Leeming, Matthew (2011). Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide (2nd ed.). Odyssey Publications.
  ISBN 978-962-217-816-8
  .
• Reddy, L.R. (2002). Inside Afghanistan: End of the Taliban Era?. APH Publishing.
  ISBN 978-81-7648-319-3
  .
• Runion, Meredith L. (2007). The History of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group.
  ISBN 978-0-313-33798-7
  .

External links

• Afghanistan. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Afghanistan web resources provided by GovPubs at the
  University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
• Afghanistan at
  Curlie
• Wikimedia Atlas of Afghanistan
• Research Guide to Afghanistan Archived 23 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine