Ophiolite
An ophiolite is a section of Earth's
The Greek word ὄφις, ophis (snake) is found in the name of ophiolites, because of the superficial texture of some of them.
Their great significance relates to their occurrence within
Pseudostratigraphy and definition
The
- Pelagic sediments: mostly siliceous oozes, calcareous oozes and red clays deposited since the crust formed.
- Extrusive sequence: basaltic pillow lavas show magma/seawater contact.
- Sheeted dike complex: vertical, parallel dikes that fed lavas above.
- High level intrusives: isotropic gabbro, indicative of a fractionated magma chamber.
- Layered gabbro, resulting from settling out of minerals from a magma chamber.
- Cumulate peridotite: dunite-rich layers of minerals that settled out from a magma chamber.
- Tectonized peridotite: harzburgite/lherzolite-rich mantle rock.
A Geological Society of America Penrose Conference on ophiolites in 1972 defined the term "ophiolite" to include all of the layers listed above, including the sediment layer formed independently of the rest of the ophiolite.[1] This definition has been challenged recently because new studies of oceanic crust by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program and other research cruises have shown that in situ ocean crust can be quite variable in thickness and composition, and that in places sheeted dikes sit directly on peridotite tectonite, with no intervening gabbros.
Formation and emplacement
Ophiolites have been identified in most of the world's orogenic belts.[2] However, two components of ophiolite formation are under debate: the origin of the sequence and the mechanism for ophiolite emplacement. Emplacement is the process of the sequence's uplift over lower density continental crust.[3]
Origin as ocean lithosphere
Several studies support the conclusion that ophiolites formed as oceanic
Ophiolite emplacement
There is yet no consensus on the mechanics of emplacement, the process by which oceanic crust is uplifted onto continental margins despite the relatively low density of the latter. All emplacement procedures share the same steps nonetheless: subduction initiation, thrusting of the ophiolite over a continental margin or an overriding plate at a subduction zone, and contact with air.[7]
Hypotheses
Emplacement by irregular continental margin
A hypothesis based on research conducted on the Bay of Islands complex in Newfoundland as well as the East Vardar complex in the Apuseni Mountains of Romania
As trapped forearc
Ophiolite generation and subduction may also be explained, as suggested from evidence from the Coast Range ophiolite of California and Baja California, by a change in subduction location and polarity.[10] Oceanic crust attached to a continental margin subducts beneath an island arc. Pre-ophiolitic ocean crust is generated by a back-arc basin. The collision of the continent and island arc initiates a new subduction zone at the back-arc basin, dipping in the opposite direction as the first. The created ophiolite becomes the tip of the new subduction's forearc and is uplifted (over the accretionary wedge) by detachment and compression.[10] Verification of the two above hypotheses requires further research, as do the other hypotheses available in current literature on the subject.
Research
Scientists have drilled only about 1.5 km into the 6- to 7-kilometer-thick oceanic crust, so scientific understanding of oceanic crust comes largely from comparing ophiolite structure to seismic soundings of in situ oceanic crust. Oceanic crust generally has a layered velocity structure that implies a layered rock series similar to that listed above. But in detail there are problems, with many ophiolites exhibiting thinner accumulations of igneous rock than are inferred for oceanic crust. Another problem relating to oceanic crust and ophiolites is that the thick gabbro layer of ophiolites calls for large magma chambers beneath mid-ocean ridges. However, seismic sounding of mid-ocean ridges has revealed only a few magma chambers beneath ridges, and these are quite thin. A few deep drill holes into oceanic crust have intercepted gabbro, but it is not layered like ophiolite gabbro.[citation needed]
The circulation of
Thus, there is reason to believe that ophiolites are indeed oceanic mantle and crust; however, certain problems arise when looking closer. Beyond issues of layer thicknesses mentioned above, a problem arises concerning compositional differences of
Additionally, the
A fore-arc setting for most ophiolites also solves the otherwise-perplexing problem of how oceanic lithosphere can be emplaced on top of continental crust. It appears that continental accretion sediments, if carried by the downgoing plate into a subduction zone, will jam it up and cause subduction to cease, resulting in the rebound of the
Groups and assemblages
Ophiolites are common in orogenic belts of Mesozoic age, like those formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean. Ophiolites in Archean and Paleoproterozoic domains are rare.[13]
Most ophiolites can be divided into one of two groups: Tethyan and Cordilleran. Tethyan ophiolites are characteristic of those that occur in the eastern Mediterranean sea area, e.g. Troodos in Cyprus, and in the Middle East, such as Semail in Oman, which consist of relatively complete rock series corresponding to the classic ophiolite assemblage and which have been emplaced onto a passive
Based on mode of occurrences, the Neoproterozoic ophiolites appear to show characteristics of both mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB)-type and SSZ-type ophiolites and are classified from oldest to youngest into: (1) MORB intact ophiolites (MIO); (2) dismembered ophiolites (DO); and (3) arc-associated ophiolites (AAO) (El Bahariya, 2018). Collectively, the investigated ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert (CED) fall into both MORB/back-arc basin basalt (BABB) ophiolites and SSZ ophiolites. They are spatially and temporally unrelated, and thus, it seems likely that the two types are not petrogenetically related. Ophiolites occur in different geological settings, and they represent change of the tectonic setting of the ophiolites from MORB to SSZ with time.
Origin and evolution of the concept
The term ophiolite originated from publications of
As
In 1973, Akiho Miyashiro revolutionized common conceptions of ophiolites and proposed an island arc origin for the famous Troodos Ophiolite in Cyprus, arguing that numerous lavas and dykes in the ophiolite had calc-alkaline chemistries.[22]
Notable examples
Examples of ophiolites that have been influential in the study of these rocks bodies are:
- Coast Range Ophiolite in the California Coast Ranges, from Santa Barbara through San Francisco Counties, California.
- Semail Ophiolite in Oman and the United Arab Emirates, widely considered one of the best exposed ophiolite sequences
- copper depositsof Cyprus (from which copper is named)
- Macquarie Island, Tasmania, Australia was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997, as "the only known example of an ophiolite...complex in the process of being formed and currently in its original geological setting".[23]
- Bay of Islands Ophiolite in Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland, named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 because of its superbly exposed complete ophiolite stratigraphic sequence
- Yakuno, Horokanai, and Poroshiri, three full ophiolite sequences in Japan
- Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt, South Island, New Zealand. The rocktype dunite is named after this locality.[24]
- Zambales ophiolite complex[25] including the Coto and Acoje blocks, Luzon, Philippines. The ~45 Myr old[26] Zambales ophiolite forms part of the basement of the Luzon island arc complex.[27]
- Naga Hills and Andaman ophiolite belt, Northeast India[28]
- Neoproterozoic ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert, Egypt (El Bahariya, 2018).
- Himalayan Ophiolites, Nidar, Shergol (Manas et al., 2021)
Notes
- ^ a b c d e Dilek 2003, p. 5
- ^ Ben-Avraham, Z., (1982)
- ^ Kearey, P., et al., (2009)
- ^ Salisbury, M.H., and Christensen, N.I., (1978)
- ^ a b c d e Mason, R., (1985)
- ^ Moores, E.M., (1982)
- ^ Wakabayashi, J. and Dilek, Y., (2003)
- OCLC 1188715024.
- ^ a b Cawood, P.A. and Suhr, G., (1992)
- ^ a b Wakabayashi, J. and Dilek, Y., (2000)
- ^ Metcalf, R.V. and Shervais, J.W., (2008)
- ^ Shervais, J.W., (2001), Metcalf, R.V. and Shervais, J.W., (2008)
- ISBN 9780080457598.
- ^ e.g. Shervais, J.W., (2001)
- ^ Brogniart, A. (1813)
- ^ a b c d e Dilek 2003, p. 1
- S2CID 128688781
- ^ a b c d Şengör & Natal'in (2004), p. 682
- ^ Şengör & Natal'in (2004), p. 681
- ^ Şengör (1982), p. 44
- ^ Dilek 2003, p. 4
- ^ Dilek 2003, p. 6
- ^ "Macquarie Island World Heritage values". World heritage places. Australian Government Department of the Environment. 24 April 2008. Archived from the original on 17 April 2012.
- S2CID 129776536.
- .
- ISSN 2156-2202.
- .
- .
References
- Ben-Avraham, Z. et al. (1982) "The emplacement of ophiolites by collision," Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth (1978–2012) 87, no. B5, 3861–3867.
- Brongniart, A. (1813) Essai de classification minéralogique des roches mélangées, Journal des Mines, v. XXXIV, 190–199.
- Cawood, P. A. and G. Suhr (1992) "Generation and obduction of ophiolites: constraints from the Bay of Islands Complex, western Newfoundland," Tectonics 11, no. 4, 884–897.
- Church, W. R. and R. K. Stevens (1970) Early Paleozoic ophiolite complexes of the Newfoundland Appalachians as mantle-oceanic crust sequences, Journal of Geophysical Research, 76, 1460–1466
- Coleman, R. G. (1977) Ophiolites: Ancient Oceanic Lithosphere?, Springer Verlag, 229 pp
- Dilek, Y. (2003). "Ophiolite concept and its evolution" (PDF). In Dilek, Y.; Newcomb, S. (eds.). Ophiolite concept and the evolution of geological thought. Vol. Special Paper 373. Geological Society of America. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0813723730. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- El Bahariya, G. A., 2018. Classification of the Neoproterozoic ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert, Egypt based on field geological characteristics and mode of occurrence. Arabian Journal of Geosciences,11:313.
- Encarnacion, J. (2004) Multiple ophiolite generation preserved in the northern Philippines and the growth of an island arc complex, Tectonophysics, 392, 103–130
- Gass, I. G. (1968) Is the Troodos massif of Cyprus a fragment of Mesozoic ocean floor?, Nature, 220, 39–42
- Kearey, P. et al. (2009) "Global Tectonics," New Delhi: John Wiley & Sons.
- Mason, R. (1985) "Ophiolites," Geology Today 1, no. 5, 136–140.
- Metcalf, R. V., and J. W. Shervais, (2008) Supra-Subduction Zone (SSZ) Ophiolites: Is There Really An "Ophiolite Conundrum"?, in James E. Wright and John W. Shervais, editors, Ophiolites, Arcs, and Batholiths: A Tribute to Cliff Hopson, Geological Society of America Special Paper 438, p. 191–222,
- Manas, M., Mukherjee, B.K. & Dubey, R.K. Non-silicate needles and metals in peridotites from Himalayan ophiolite, Western Ladakh, India: evidence of deep Earth origin. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-021-02086-w
- Moores, E. M.; Vine, F. J. (1971). "The Troodos massif, Cyprus, and other ophiolites as oceanic crust: Evaluation and implications". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 268A (1192): 443–466. S2CID 123073208.
- Moores, E. M. (1982). "Origin and emplacement of ophiolites". Reviews of Geophysics. 20 (4): 735–760. .
- Moores, E. M. (2003) A personal history of the ophiolite concept, in Dilek and Newcomb, editors, Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geologic Thought, Geological Society of America Special Publication 373, 17–29
- Shervais, J. W. (2001). "Birth, Death, and Resurrection: The Life Cycle of Suprasubduction Zone Ophiolites". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 2 (1): 1010. .
- Salisbury, M. H.; Christensen, N. I. (1978). "The seismic velocity structure of a traverse through the Bay of Islands ophiolite complex, Newfoundland, an exposure of oceanic crust and upper mantle". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 83 (B2): 805–817. .
- ISBN 978-0-471-103769.
- ISBN 978-0-444-50923-9.
- Steinmann, G. (1927) Die ophiolitischen Zonen in den mediterranen Kettengebirgen, translated and reprinted by Bernoulli and Friedman, in Dilek and Newcomb, editors, Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geologic Thought, Geological Society of America Special Publication 373, 77–91
- Vine, F. J.; Matthews, D. H. (1963). "Magnetic anomalies over ocean ridges". Nature. 199 (4897): 947–949. S2CID 4296143.
- Wakabayashi, J.; Dilek, Y. (2000). "Spatial and temporal relationships between ophiolites and their metamorphic soles: a test of models of forearc ophiolite genesis". Special Papers-Geological Society of America: 53–64.
- Wakabayashi, J.; Dilek, Y. (2003). "What constitutes 'emplacement'of an ophiolite?: Mechanisms and relationship to subduction initiation and formation of metamorphic soles". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 218 (1): 427–447. S2CID 131588528.
External links
- Ishiwatari, A. (2001). "Introduction to opholites". Kanazawa University. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- Shervais, J. W. (2001). "Birth, death, and resurrection: The life cycle of suprasubduction zone ophiolites" (PDF). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 2 (1): n/a. S2CID 128443724. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- Ofioliti, an international journal on ophiolites and modern oceanic lithosphere
- Gallery of ophiolitic rocks published on Flickr by Ohio State University