Scytho-Siberian world

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)
This article is about the Iron Age cultures on the Eurasian Steppe. For the Iranian people of the Pontic steppe, see Scythians. For other uses, see Scythian (disambiguation).

Scytho-Siberian world
Geographical rangeEurasian Steppe
PeriodIron Age
Datesc. 900 BC–200 AD
Preceded bySrubnaya culture, Andronovo culture
Followed byGoths, Alans, Xiongnu, Circassians

The Scytho-Siberian world

Sarmatian cultures of Eastern Europe, the Saka-Massagetae and Tasmola cultures of Central Asia, and the Aldy-Bel, Pazyryk and Tagar cultures of south Siberia
.

The Scythian-Siberian world was characterized by the Scythian triad, which are similar, yet not identical, styles of weapons, horses' bridles, and

forest-steppe populations. Mostly speakers of the Scythian branch of the Iranian languages,[b] all of these peoples are sometimes collectively referred to as Scythians, Scytho-Siberians, Early Nomads, or Iron Age Nomads.[3]

Origins and spread

Further information: Scythia
Horseman from the Pazyryk burials, c. 300 BC, one of the most famous archaeological discoveries from the Scytho-Siberian world.[2] Equestrianism is one of the chief characteristics of the Scytho-Siberian world

The Scytho-Siberian world emerged on the Eurasian Steppe at the dawn of the Iron Age in the early 1st millennium BC. Its origins has long been a source of debate among archaeologists.[4] The Pontic–Caspian steppe was initially thought to have been their place of origin, until the Soviet archaeologist Aleksey Terenozhkin suggested a Central Asian origin.[5][6]

Recent excavations at

Siberian groups during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[9][10][5][11]

The Scytho-Siberian world quickly came to stretch from the

Sakastan), India (Indo-Scythians) and the Tarim Basin.[13] In the early centuries AD the western part of the Scytho-Siberian world came under pressure from the Goths and other Germanic peoples.[13] The end of the Scythian period in archaeology has been set at approximately the 2nd century AD.[2]

Recent archeological and genetic data confirmed that Western and Eastern Scythians of the 1st millennium BC originated independently, but both formed from a combination of a

Yenisei river and modern-day China in the 10th century BC.[15] The rapid spread of the Scytho-Siberian world, from the Eastern Scythians to the Western Scythians, is also confirmed by significant east-to-west gene flow across the steppes during the 1st millennium BC.[14][15]

Peoples

See also: Eurasian nomads and Scythian languages
Depiction of a Sarmatian from a Roman sarcophagus, 2nd century AD. Although a different people than the Scythians, the Sarmatians were part of the Scytho-Siberian world.[5]

Ethnicity

The peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world are mentioned by contemporary

Persian and Greek historians. They were mostly speakers of Iranian languages.[b]
Despite belonging to similar material cultures, the peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world belonged to many separate ethnic groups.[16][17] Peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world include speakers of the Scythian languages:[5][18]

Although the peoples of the forest steppe were part of the Scytho-Siberian world, their origins are obscure;

Finno-Ugric peoples among them.[20][21] The settled population of the Scytho-Siberian world areas also included Thracians.[9]

Terminology

Head of a Saka warrior, as a defeated enemy of the Yuezhi, from Khalchayan, northern Bactria, 1st century BC.[22][23][24]

Among the diverse peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world, the Scythians are the most famous, due to the reports on them published by the 5th century Greek historian Herodotus. The ancient Persians referred to all nomads of steppe as Saka. In modern times, the term Scythians is sometimes applied to all the peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world.[20] Within this terminology it is often distinguished between "western" Scythians living on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, and "eastern" Scythians living on the Eastern Steppe.[5][13] The term Scytho-Siberians has also been applied to all peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world.[25] The terms Early Nomads[26] and Iron Age Nomads have also been used.[10] The terms Saka or Sauromates, and Scytho-Siberians, is sometimes used for the "eastern" Scythians living in Central Asia and southern Siberia respectively.[9][27]

The ambiguity of the term Scythian has led to a lot of confusion in literature.[c][18]

Nicola Di Cosmo (1999) questions the validity of referring to the cultures of all early Eurasian nomads as "Scythian", and recommends the use of alternative terms such as Early Nomadic.[29][d]

By ancient authors, the term "Scythian" eventually came to be applied to a wide range of peoples "who had no relation whatever to the original Scythians", such as Huns, Goths, Turks, Avars, Khazars, and other unnamed nomads.[13]

Characteristics

Further information:
Scythian art
art, which was made in the animal style
.

The cultures of the Scytho-Siberian world are recognized for three characteristics known as the Scythian triad:[18][27]

  • similar, yet not identical, shapes for horses' bridles,
  • their weapons, especially their distinct
    short, composite bows
    , and
  • the
    styling on their jewelry and decorations
    .

Their art was made in the

Scythian art
.

Finds

See also: Solokha, Kul-Oba, and Tillya Tepe

In the beginning of the 18th century, Russian explorers began uncovering Scythian finds throughout their newly acquired territories.

Significant Scythian archaeological finds have been uncovered up to recent times. A major find are the

mummification practiced by the Scythians.[2] Another important find is the Issyk kurgan.[8]

Society

See also: Equestrianism and Horses in warfare
Issyk Kurgan
, c. 4th–3rd century BC

The Scythians were excellent craftsmen with complex cultural traditions.

patriarchal.[27]

Numerous archaeological finds have revealed that the Scythians led a warlike life: Their competition for territory must have been fierce. The numerous weapons placed in graves are indicative of a highly militarized society. Scythian warfare was primarily conducted through

Scythian bow. Sometimes they would poison their arrows.[2]

Physical appearance

The Scythians were tall and powerfully built, even by modern standards.

better source needed
]

Their physical traits are characteristic of

better source needed
]

Numerous Eastern Scythian remains have been found in an excellent state of preservation in the

Ukok plateau and Mongolia had blond hair.[34][35]

Preserved skin tissue also reveals that the eastern Scythians had tattoos. Tattooing is not thought to have been practiced by western Scythians.[36]

Genetics

The genetics of remains from Scythian-identified cultures show broad general patterns, among these are remarkably different histories for men and women. Their ethnic affiliations are summarized above. Their familial inter-relations are discussed below.

There are two distinct paternal lineages in the east and west,

N.[39] In a sample of Siberian Scythians, there was a nearly equal proportion of West and East Eurasian maternal lineages.[27]

The maternal lineages among Scythians are diverse,[5][10][27] showing a mixture of Eastern and West Eurasian lineages, with increasing East Asian admixture in the Iron Age.[9][40] In Western Scythians, West Eurasian maternal lineages are 62.5-74% of the total, while East Eurasian maternal lineages are 26-37%.[9] In a sample of Eastern Scythians from Tuva, the maternal lineages are nearly equally divided between Western and East Eurasian sources.[27]

Ethnogenesis

Hunter Gatherers from West Siberia
, respectively.