Alans

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Not to be confused with Alan (disambiguation) or Alanis (disambiguation).
"Alani" redirects here. For other uses, see Alani (disambiguation).

Alans
Alani
Map showing the migrations of the Alans
Languages
Scythian, Alanian
Related ethnic groups
Ossetians
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The Alans (

Pontic Steppe.[4]

Upon the

Germanic tribes. They crossed the Rhine in 406 CE along with the Vandals and Suebi, settling in Orléans and Valence. Around 409 CE they joined the Vandals and Suebi in crossing the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula, settling in Lusitania and Hispania Carthaginensis.[9] The Iberian Alans, soundly defeated by the Visigoths in 418 CE, subsequently surrendered their authority to the Hasdingi Vandals.[10] In 428 CE, the Vandals and Alans crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into North Africa, where they founded a kingdom which lasted until its conquest by forces of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I in 534.[10]

Those Alans who remained under Hunnic rule eventually founded the powerful kingdom of Alania in the North Caucasus in the 9th century; it survived until the Mongol invasions of the 13th century CE. Various Ossetian scholars regard these Alans as the ancestors of the modern Ossetians.[8][11]

The Alans spoke an Eastern Iranian language which derived from Scytho-Sarmatian and which in turn evolved into the modern Ossetian language.[2][12][13] The name Alan represents an Eastern Iranian dialectal form of Old Iranian term Aryan,[1][2][14] and so is cognate with the name of the country Īrān (from the gen. plur. *aryānām).[15]

Name

The Alans were documented by foreign observers from the 1st century CE onward under similar names:

Latin: Alānī; Greek: Ἀλανοί Alanoi; Chinese: 阿蘭聊 Alanliao (Pinyin; Alan + Liu) in the 2nd century,[16] 阿蘭 Alan in the 3rd century,[17] later Alanguo (阿蘭國);[18] Parthian and Middle Persian Alānān (plural); Arabic Alān (singular); Syriac Alānayē; Classical Armenian Alank'; Georgian Alaneti ('country of the Alans'); Hebrew Alan (pl. Alanim).[19][1] Rarer Latin spellings include Alauni or Halani.[20] The name was also preserved in the modern Ossetian language as Allon.[21][22]

The

Indo-Iranian peoples.[23][24][1] It probably came in use in the early history of the Alans for the purpose of uniting a heterogeneous group of tribes through the invocation of a common, ancestral 'Aryan' origin.[22] Like the name of Iran (*Aryānām), the adjective *aryāna is related to Airyanəm Waēǰō ('stretch of the Aryas'), the mythical homeland of the early Iranians mentioned in the Avesta.[24][1]

Some other ethnonyms also bear the name of the Alans: the

Rhoxolāni ('Bright Alans'), an offshoot of the Alans whose name may be linked to religious practices, and the Alanorsoi ('White Alans'), perhaps a conglomerate of Alans and Aorsi.[25] The personal names Alan and Alain (from Latin Alanus) may have been introduced by Alan settlers to Western Europe during the first millennium CE.[26]

The Alans were also known over the course of their history by another group of related names including the variations Asi, As, and Os (Romanian Iasi or Olani, Bulgarian Uzi, Hungarian Jász, Russian Jasy, Georgian Osi).[12][27] It is this name at the root of the modern Ossetian.[12]

History

Timeline

South OssetiaDigor (dialect)Iron (dialect)Jassic peopleNorth Ossetia-AlaniaNorth Ossetia-AlaniaMongolsKhazarsVandalsRoxolaniHunsCaucasusCiscaucasusDanubeGaulAfrica Province

Origin

The Alans were formed out of the merger of the Massagetae, a Central Asian Iranian nomadic people, with some old tribal groups. Related to the Asii who had invaded Bactria in the 2nd century BCE, the Alans were pushed west by the Kang-chü people (known to Graeco-Roman authors as the Ἰαξάρται Iaxártai in Greek, and the Iaxartae in Latin), the latter of whom were living in the Syr Darya basin, from where they expanded their rule from Fergana to the Aral Sea region.[28][29]

Early Alans

Scythians and related Northeastern Iranic peoples in the Iron Age highlighted in green.
Europe, 117–138 CE, when the Alani were concentrated north of the Caucasus Mountains (centre right).

The first mentions of names that historians link with the Alani appear at almost the same time in texts from the Mediterranean, Middle East and China.[30]

In the 1st century CE, the Alans migrated westwards from

Vologases I, the Parthian king between around  45 and 78 CE, in the 11th year of his reign (62 CE), battled Kuluk, king of the Alani.[31] The 1st century CE Jewish historian Josephus supplements this inscription. Josephus reports in the Jewish Wars (book 7, ch. 7.4) how Alans (whom he calls a "Scythian" tribe) living near the Sea of Azov crossed the Iron Gates for plunder (72 CE) and defeated the armies of Pacorus, king of Media, and Tiridates, King of Armenia, two brothers of Vologeses I
(for whom the above-mentioned inscription was made):

Now there was a nation of the Alans, which we have formerly mentioned somewhere as being Scythians, and living around Tanais and Lake Maeotis. This nation about this time laid a design of falling upon Media, and the parts beyond it, in order to plunder them; with which intention they treated with the king of Hyrcania; for he was master of that passage which king Alexander shut up with iron gates. This king gave them leave to come through them; so they came in great multitudes, and fell upon the Medes unexpectedly, and plundered their country, which they found full of people, and replenished with abundance of cattle, while nobody dared make any resistance against them; for Pacorus, the king of the country, had fled away for fear into places where they could not easily come at him, and had yielded up everything he had to them, and had only saved his wife and his concubines from them, and that with difficulty also, after they had been made captives, by giving a hundred talents for their ransom. These Alans therefore plundered the country without opposition, and with great ease, and proceeded as far as Armenia, laying waste all before them. Now, Tiridates was king of that country, who met them and fought them but was lucky not to have been taken alive in the battle; for a certain man threw a noose over him and would soon have drawn him in, had he not immediately cut the cord with his sword and escaped. So the Alans, being still more provoked by this sight, laid waste the country, and drove a great multitude of the men, and a great quantity of the other booty from both kingdoms, along with them, and then retreated back to their own country.

The fact that the Alans invaded

Kuban.[4] These lands had earlier been occupied by the Aorsi and the Siraces, whom the Alans apparently absorbed, dispersed and/or destroyed, since they were no longer mentioned in contemporaneous accounts.[4] It is likely that the Alans' influence stretched further westwards, encompassing most of the Sarmatian world, which by then possessed a relatively homogenous culture.[4]

In 135 CE, the Alans made a huge raid into

Asia Minor via the Caucasus, ravaging Media and Armenia.[4] They were eventually driven back by Arrian, the governor of Cappadocia, who wrote a detailed report (Ektaxis kata Alanoon or 'War Against the Alans') that is a major source for studying Roman military tactics
.

From 215 to 250, the

Claudius II and Aurelian
.)

After the Gothic entry to the steppe, many of the Alans seem to have retreated eastwards towards the Don, where they seem to have established contacts with the

Vegetius conflates Alans and Huns in his military treatise –  Hunnorum Alannorumque natio, the "nation of Huns and Alans" – and collocates Goths, Huns and Alans, exemplo Gothorum et Alannorum Hunnorumque.[32]

The 4th century Roman historian

Don River and the Aral Sea, mentioned in Roman records, in particular Strabo.[7]

Link to Yancai (奄蔡) / Hesu (闔蘇) / Alan (阿蘭)

The Later

Hou Hanshu, 88 (covering the period 25–220 and completed in the 5th century), mentioned a report that the Yancai nation (奄蔡 lit "Vast Steppes" or "Extensive Grasslands" < LHC *ʔɨamB-sɑC; a.k.a. Hesu (闔蘇), compare Latin Abzoae,[35][36] identified with the Aorsi (Ancient Greek Αορσιοι)[37][38]) had become a vassal state of the Kangju and was now known as Alan (< LHC: *ʔɑ-lɑn 阿蘭)[39][40][a]

Y. A. Zadneprovskiy suggests that the Kangju subjugation of Yancai occurred in the 1st century BCE, and that this subjugation caused various Sarmatian tribes, including the Aorsi, to migrate westwards, which played a major role in starting the Migration Period.[7][44] The 3rd century Weilüe also notes that Yancai was then known to be Alans, although they were no longer vassals of the Kangju.[45]

Dutch Sinologist A. F. P. Hulsewé noted that:[46]

Chavannes (1905), p. 558, note 5, approves of the identification of Yen-ts’ai with the ‘Αορσοι mentioned by Strabo, as proposed by Hirth (1885), p. 139, note 1 ; he believes this identification to be strengthened by the later name Alan, which explains Ptolemy's "Alanorsi". Marquart (1905), pp. 240–241, did not accept this identification, but Pulleyblank (1963), pp. 99 and 220, does, referring for additional support to HSPC 70.6b where the name Ho-su 闔蘇, reconstructed in ‘Old Chinese’ as ĥa̱p-sa̱ĥ, can be compared with Abzoae found in Pliny VI, 38 (see also Pulleyblank (1968), p. 252). Also Humbach (1969), pp. 39–40, accepts the identification, though with some reserve.

Migration to Gaul

The migrations of the Alans during the 4th–5th centuries CE, from their homeland in the North Caucasus

Around 370, according to Ammianus, the peaceful relations between the Alans and Huns were broken, after the Huns attacked the Don Alans, killing many of them and establishing an alliance with the survivors.[4][47] These Alans successfully invaded the Goths in 375 together with the Huns.[4] They subsequently accompanied the Huns in their westward expansion.[4]

Following the Hunnic invasion in 370, other Alans, along with other

Liber historiae Francorum ("Book of Frankish History") that the Alan king Respendial saved the day for the Vandals in an armed encounter with the Franks at the crossing of the Rhine on December 31, 406). According to Gregory, another group of Alans, led by Goar
, crossed the Rhine at the same time, but immediately joined the Romans and settled in Gaul.

Under Beorgor (Beorgor rex Alanorum), they moved throughout Gaul, till the reign of Petronius Maximus, when they crossed the Alps in the winter of 464, into Liguria, but were there defeated, and Beorgor slain, by Ricimer, commander of the Emperor's forces.[48][49]

In 442, after it became clear to

bacaudae of Armorica and to keep the Visigoths from expanding their territories northward across the Loire. Goar settled a substantial number of his followers in the Orleanais and the area to the north and personally moved his own capital to the city of Orleans.[50]

Under Goar, they allied with the

Chalcedonian Christians like Clovis, desired cordial relations with him to counterbalance the hostile Arian Visigoths who coveted the land north of the Loire. Therefore, an accord was arranged by which Clovis came to rule the various peoples of Armorica and the military strength of the area was integrated into the Merovingian military.[52]

Hispania and Africa

Kingdom of the Alans in Hispania (409–426 CE).

Following the fortunes of the

Baetica, the Suebi in coastal Gallaecia, and the Asding Vandals in the rest of Gallaecia. Although the newcomers controlled Hispania they were still a tiny minority among a larger Hispano-Roman population, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000.[9]

In 418 (or 426 according to some authors

Iberia, most went to North Africa with the Vandals in 429. Later the rulers of the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa styled themselves Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum ("King of the Vandals and Alans").[57][58]

Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans in North Africa (526 CE).

There are some vestiges of the Alans in Portugal,[59] namely in Alenquer (whose name may be Germanic for the Temple of the Alans, from "Alan Kerk",[60] and whose castle may have been established by them; the Alaunt is still represented in that city's coat of arms), in the construction of the castles of Torres Vedras and Almourol, and in the city walls of Lisbon, where vestiges of their presence may be found under the foundations of the Church of Santa Luzia.[citation needed]

In the Iberian peninsula the Alans settled in

boar hunting and cattle herding. The Alano name, however, has historically been used for a number of dog breeds in a few European countries thought to descend from the original dog of the Alans, such as the German mastiff (Great Dane) and the French Dogue de Bordeaux, among others.[citation needed
]

Medieval Alania

Main article: Alania

The Alans who remained in their original area of settlement north of the Caucasus (and for a time east of the

Gökturks, and the Khazars, who drove most of them from the plains and into the mountains.[61]

The Alans converted to

Al-Mas‘udi reports that they apostasized in 932, but this seems to have been short-lived. The Alans are collectively mentioned as Byzantine-rite Christians in the 13th century.[61] The Caucasian Alans were the ancestors of the modern Ossetians, whose ethnonym derives from the name Ās (very probably the ancient Aorsi; al-Ma'sudi mentions al-Arsiyya as guards among the Khazars, and the Rus' called the Alans Yasi), a sister tribe of the Alans. The Armenian Geography uses the name Ashtigor for the most westerly located Alans, a name which survives as Digor and still refers to the western division of the Ossetians. Furthermore, in Ossetian, Asi refers to the region around Mount Elbrus, where they probably formerly lived.[61]

Pontic steppe
in c. 650

Some of the other Alans remained under the rule of the Huns. Those of the eastern division, though dispersed about the steppes until late

better source needed
]

In 1253, the Franciscan friar

converted many Alans to Roman Catholic Christianity in addition to Armenians in China.[63][64] In Poland and Lithuania, Alans were also part of the powerful Clan of Ostoja
.

According to the missionary Pian de Carpine, a part of the Alans had successfully resisted a Mongol siege on a mountain for 12 years:[65]

When they (the Mongols) begin to besiege a fortress, they besiege it for many years, as it happens today with one mountain in the land of the Alans. We believe they have been besieging it for twelve years and they (the Alans) put up courageous resistance and killed many Tatars, including many noble ones.

— Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, report from 1250

This twelve-year-old siege is not found in any other report, however the Russian historian A. I. Krasnov connected this battle with two

Chechen folktales he recorded in 1967 that spoke of an old hunter named Idig who with his companions defended the Dakuoh mountain for 12 years against Tatar-Mongols. He also reported to have found several arrowheads and spears from the 13th century near the very mountain the battle took place at:[66]

The next year, with the onset of summer, the enemy hordes came again to destroy the highlanders. But even this year they failed to capture the mountain, on which the brave Chechens settled down. The battle lasted twelve years. The main wealth of the Chechens - livestock - was stolen by the enemies. Tired of the long years of hard struggle, the Chechens, believing the assurances of mercy by the enemy, descended from the mountain, but the Mongol-Tatars treacherously killed the majority, and the rest were taken into slavery. This fate was escaped only by Idig and a few of his companions who did not trust the nomads and remained on the mountain. They managed to escape and leave Mount Dakuoh after 12 years of siege.

— Amin Tesaev, The Legend and struggle of the Chechen hero Idig (1238–1250)

Against the Alans and the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols used divide-and-conquer tactics by first telling the Cumans to stop allying with the Alans and, after the Cumans followed their suggestion, the Mongols then attacked the Cumans

Great Khan, e.g. Alans living as Mongol subjects in Crimea, Old Astrakhan, the Khan's capital Karakorum, and also still as freemen in their Caucasian homeland ("the Alans or Aas, who are Christians and still fight the Tartars").[73] The reason why the earlier Persian word tersa was gradually abandoned by the Mongols in favour of the Syro-Greek word arkon, when speaking of Christians, manifestly is that no specifically Greek Church was ever heard of in China until the Russians had been conquered; besides, there were large bodies of Russian and Alan guards at Peking throughout the last half of the thirteenth and first half of the fourteenth century, and the Catholics there would not be likely to encourage the use of a Persian word which was most probably applicable in the first instance to the Nestorians they found so degenerated.[74] The Alan guards converted to Catholicism as reported by Odorico.[75] They were a "Russian guard".[76]

Jassic people, in the 18th century within the Kingdom of Hungary
.

It is believed that some Alans resettled to the North (

Volga Bulgars and Burtas, eventually transforming to Volga Tatars.[77][not specific enough to verify] It is supposed that the Iasi, a group of Alans founded a town in the northeast of Romania (about 1200–1300), near the Prut river, called Iași. The latter became the capital of Moldavia in the Middle Ages.[78]

Alan mercenaries were involved in the affair with the Catalan Company.[79]

Later history

Descendants of the Alans who live in the autonomous republics of Russia and Georgia speak the

national poet, Kosta Khetagurov
(1859–1906).

Physical appearance

The fourth-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote this on the appearance of the Alans:

Nearly all the Alani are men of great stature and beauty; their hair is somewhat yellow, their eyes are terribly fierce.[80]

Genetics

Ossetians

In a study conducted in 2014 by V. V. Ilyinskyon on bone fragments from 10 Alanic burials on the Don River, DNA could be abstracted from a total of seven. Four of them turned out to belong to yDNA Haplogroup G2 and six of them had mtDNA I. The fact that many of the samples share the same y- and mtDNA raises the possibility that the tested individuals belonged to the same tribe or even were close relatives. Nevertheless, this supports the argument for a direct Alan ancestry of Ossetians, competing with the hypothesis that Ossetians are alanized Caucasic-speakers, as the main haplogroup among Ossetians is also G2.[81]

In 2015, the Institute of Archaeology in Moscow conducted research on various Sarmato-Alan and Saltovo-Mayaki culture Kurgan burials. In this analysis, the two Alan samples from the 4th to 6th century CE had yDNAs G2a-P15 and R1a-z94, while from the three Sarmatian samples from 2nd to 3rd century CE two had yDNA J1-M267 and one possessed R1a.[82] Also, the three Saltovo-Mayaki samples from 8th to 9th century CE turned out to have yDNAs G, J2a-M410 and R1a-z94 respectively.[83]

A genetic study published in

W1.[85]

Archaeology

Archaeological finds support the written sources. P. D. Rau (1927) first identified late Sarmatian sites with the historical Alans. Based on the archaeological material, they were one of the Iranian-speaking nomadic tribes that began to enter the Sarmatian area between the middle of the 1st and the 2nd centuries.

Language

The ancient language of the Alans was an

Eastern Iranian dialect either identical, or at least closely related, to ancient Eastern Iranian languages.[86] This is confirmed by comparison of the word for horse in various Indo-Iranian languages and the reconstructed Alanic word for horse:[87]

Language Affiliation Horse
Alanic
 *aspa
Lithuanian Baltic ašvà
Sanskrit Indo-Aryan áśva
Khotanese
 Northeastern Iranian aśśa
Pashto East Iranian ās
Ossetian Northeastern Iranian efs
Wakhi Northeastern Iranian yaš
Yaghnobi Northeastern Iranian asp
Avestan Southeastern Iranian aspa
Balochi Northwestern Iranian asp
Kurdî
 Northwestern Iranian hesp
Median Northwestern Iranian aspa
Old Persian Southwestern Iranian asa
Middle Persian Southwestern Iranian asp
Persian Southwestern Iranian asb

Religion

North Ossetia-Alania

Prior to their Christianisation, the Alans were Indo-Iranian polytheists, subscribing either to the poorly understood Scythian pantheon or to a polytheistic form of Zoroastrianism. Some traditions were directly inherited from the Scythians, like embodying their dominant god in elaborate rituals.[88]

In the 4th–5th centuries the Alans were at least partially Christianized by Byzantine missionaries of the

Northern Caucasus
and massacred much of the Alanian population.

As time went by,

Kabardians (an East Circassian tribe) that Islam was introduced into the region in the 17th century. After 1767, all of Alania came under Russian rule, which strengthened Orthodox Christianity in that region considerably. A substantial minority of today's Ossetians are followers of the traditional Ossetian religion, revived in the 1980s as Assianism (Ossetian: Uatsdin = 'true faith').[89]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. Book of Later Han; as 聊 Liáo looks similar to 柳 Liǔ, the name of a separate country already mentioned before 岩 Yán & 阿蘭 Ālán.[41][42][43]

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f Golden 2009.
  2. ^ a b c d Abaev & Bailey 1985, pp. 801–803.
  3. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, pp. 12–14
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002, pp. 10–11
  5. ^ a b Zadneprovskiy 1994, pp. 467–468
  6. ^ Alemany 2000, p. 1.
  7. ^ a b c d e Zadneprovskiy 1994, pp. 465–467
  8. ^ a b "Alani". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2015. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  9. ^ a b "Spain: Visigothic Spain to c. 500". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  10. ^ a b "Vandal". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  11. ^ Shnirelman, Victor (2006). "The Politics of a Name: Between Consolidation and Separation in the Northern Caucasus" (PDF). Acta Slavica Iaponica. 23: 37–49.
  12. ^ a b c Alemany 2000, pp. 5–7.
  13. ^ For ethnogenesis, see Walter Pohl, "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies" in Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings, ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, Blackwell, 1998, pp. 13–24.
  14. ^ Alemany 2000, pp. 1–5.
  15. ^ Abaev, V. I.; Bailey, H. W. (26 August 2020), "ALANS", Encyclopaedia Iranica Online, Brill, retrieved 16 November 2023
  16. ^ "The Hou Hanshu".
  17. ^ "The Weilüe".
  18. ^ Kozin, S.A., Sokrovennoe skazanie, M.-L., 1941. pp. 83–84
  19. ^ Alemany 2000, pp. 1–2.
  20. ^ Alemany 2000, pp. 33, 99.
  21. ^ Abaev V. I. Historical-Etymological Dictionary of Ossetian Language. V. 1. М.–Л., 1958. pp. 47–48.
  22. ^ a b Alemany 2000, p. 4.
  23. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 213: "Iran Alani (< *aryana) (the name of an Iranian group whose descendants are the Ossetes, one of whose subdivisions is the Iron [< *aryana-)), *aryranam (gen. pi.) ‘of the Aryans’ (> MPers Iran)."
  24. ^ a b Alemany 2000, pp. 3–4: "Nowadays, however, only two possibilities are admitted as regards [the etymology of Alān], both closely related: (a) the adjective *aryāna- and (b) the gen. pl. *aryānām; in both cases the underlying OIran. ajective *arya- 'Aryan' is found. It is worth mentioning that although it is not possible to give an unequivocal option because both forms produce the same phonetic result, most researchers tend to favour the derivative *aryāna-, because it has a more appropriate semantic value ... The ethnic name *arya- underlying in the name of the Alans has been linked to the Av. Airiianəm Vaēǰō 'the Aryan plain'."
  25. ^ Alemany 2000, p. 8.
  26. ^ Alemany 2000, p. 5.
  27. ^ Sergiu Bacalov, Medieval Alans in Moldova / Consideraţii privind olanii (alanii) sau iaşii din Moldova medievală. Cu accent asupra acelor din regiunea Nistrului de Jos https://bacalovsergiu.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/download-sergiu-bacalov-considerac5a3ii-privind-olanii-alanii-sau-iac59fii-din-moldova-medievalc483.pdf)
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  32. ^ Vegetius 3.26, noted in passing by T.D. Barnes, "The Date of Vegetius" Phoenix 33.3 (Autumn 1979, pp. 254–257) p. 256. "The collocation of these three barbarian races does not recur a generation later", Barnes notes, in presenting a case for a late 4th-century origin for Vegetius' treatise.
  33. Roman History. Book XXXI. II. 12
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  35. ^ Yu, Taishan (July 1998). "A Study of Saka History" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers (80). Yan Shigu's 顏師古 commentary says: "Hu Guang 胡廣 adds: "Some 1,000 li to the north of Kangju was a state named Yancai, which also was named Hesu. Hence Hesu was identical with Yancai." This shows that the Yancai were also called the Hesu in the Han times.
  36. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History IV p. 365
  37. ^ Schuessler, Axel. (2009) Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 348
  38. ^ Yu Huan, Weilüe. draft translation by John E. Hill (2004). Translator's Notes 11.2 quote: "Yăncài, already mentioned in the text as a country northwest of Kāngjū (at that time in the region of Tashkend), has long been identified with the Aorsoi of western sources, a nomadic people out of whom the well-known Alans later emerged (Pulleyblank [1962: 99, 220; 1968:252])".
  39. ^ Schuessler (2009). pp. 211, 246
  40. ^ Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." Revised Edition.
  41. ^ Weilüe: "Western Regions", quoted in Sanguozhi vol. 30
  42. ^ Houhanshu, Vol. 88: Xiyu zhuan Yancai" quote: "奄蔡國，改名阿兰聊國，居地城，屬康居。土气温和，多桢松、白草。民俗衣服與康居同。"
  43. ^ Hill, John E. (translator). The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu: The Xiyu juan "Chapter on the Western Regions" from Hou Hanshu 88 2nd Ed "Section 19 – The Kingdom of Alanliao 阿蘭聊 (the Alans)"
  44. ^ Zadneprovskiy 1994, pp. 463–464
  45. ^ "For an earlier version of this translation".
  46. ^ Hulsewé. A. F .P. (1979) China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. p. 129, n. 316. cited in John E. Hill. Translator's Notes 25.3 & 25.4 to draft translation of Yu Huan's Weilüe
  47. ^ Giovanni de Marignolli, "John De' Marignolli and His Recollections of Eastern Travel", in Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Volume 2, ed. Henry Yule (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1866), 316–317.
  48. ^ Isaac Newton, Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733).
  49. ^ Paul the Deacon, Historia Romana, XV, 1.
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  51. ISBN 978-0816656998
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  52. ISBN 978-0816657001
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  53. ISBN 978-0-7607-1973-2
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General and cited sources

External links
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