Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are a collection of diverse
According to historians and linguists, the
Many vastly differing
Etymology
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The first known mention of the term Turk (Old Turkic: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰 Türük or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:𐰜𐰇𐰛 Kök Türük, Chinese: 突厥, Pinyin: Tūjué < Middle Chinese *tɦut-kyat < *dwət-kuɑt, Old Tibetan: drugu)[45][46][47][48] applied to only one Turkic group, namely, the Göktürks,[49] who were also mentioned, as türüg ~ török, in the 6th-century Khüis Tolgoi inscription, most likely not later than 587 AD.[50][51][52] A letter by Ishbara Qaghan to Emperor Wen of Sui in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan".[53][54] The Bugut (584 CE) and Orkhon inscriptions (735 CE) use the terms Türküt, Türk and Türük.[55]
During the first century CE,
The Chinese Book of Zhou (7th century) presents an etymology of the name Turk as derived from 'helmet', explaining that this name comes from the shape of a mountain where they worked in the Altai Mountains.[62] Hungarian scholar András Róna-Tas (1991) pointed to a Khotanese-Saka word, tturakä 'lid', semantically stretchable to 'helmet', as a possible source for this folk etymology, yet Golden thinks this connection requires more data.[63]
It is generally accepted that the name Türk is ultimately derived from the
Scholars, including Toru Haneda, Onogawa Hidemi, and Geng Shimin believed that Di, Dili, Dingling, Chile and Tujue all came from the Turkic word Türk, which means 'powerful' and 'strength', and its plural form is Türküt.
The earliest Turkic-speaking peoples identifiable in Chinese sources are the Yenisei Kyrgyz and Xinli, located in South Siberia.[73][74][note 2] Another example of an early Turkic population would be the Dingling.[79][80][81]
In Late Antiquity itself, as well as in and the
In the modern Turkish language as used in the Republic of Turkey, a distinction is made between "Turks" and the "Turkic peoples" in loosely speaking: the term Türk corresponds specifically to the "Turkish-speaking" people (in this context, "Turkish-speaking" is considered the same as "Turkic-speaking"), while the term
List of ethnic groups
- Historical Turkic groups
- Az
- Dingling
- Bulgars
- Esegel
- Barsils
- Alat
- Basmyl
- Onogurs
- Saragurs
- Sabirs
- Shatuo
- Ongud (from Shatuo)
- Göktürks
- Oghuz Turks
- Kanglys
- Kabar
- Khazars
- Kipchaks
- Kurykans
- Kumans
- Pechenegs
- Karluks
- Tiele
- Turgesh
- Tukhsi
- Yenisei Kirghiz
- Chigils
- Toquz Oghuz
- Orkhon Uyghurs
- Yagma
- Nushibi
- Duolu
- Kutrigurs
- Utigurs
- Yabaku
- Yueban[note 3]
- Bulaqs
- Xueyantuo
- Torks
- Chorni Klobuky
- Berendei
- Yemeks
- Karamanlides (partly)[86][87]
- Naimans (partly)
- Keraites (partly)[88][89]
- Merkits (partly)[note 4]
- Uriankhai (partly)[note 5]
Possible Proto-Turkic ancestry, at least partial,[90][91][92][93][94][95] has been posited for Xiongnu, Huns and Pannonian Avars, as well as Tuoba and Rouran, who were of Proto-Mongolic Donghu ancestry.[96][97][98][99] as well as Tatars, Rourans' supposed descendants.[100][101][note 6]
Remarks
- ^ Figure combines population of Turkmen and Uzbeks only. Population estimates of Turkmenistan's minority groups often widely vary. Some sources have cast doubt on the reliability of official government data for minority population figures.[17][18]
- ^ The Xueyantuo were first known as Xinli 薪犁, later Xue 薛 in the 7th century;[75][76] the Yenisei Kyrgyz were first known as Gekun (鬲昆) or Jiankun (堅昆), later known as Jiegu (結骨), Hegu (紇骨), Hegusi (紇扢斯), Hejiasi (紇戛斯), Hugu (護骨), Qigu (契骨), Juwu (居勿), and Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), all being transcriptions of Kyrgyz.[77][78]
- ^ Book of Wei vol. 102. quote: "悅般國 [...] 其風俗言語與高車同" translation: "Yueban nation [...] Their customs and language are the same as the Gaoche['s]"; Gaoche (高車; lit. "High-Carts") was another name of the Turkic-speaking Tiele
- ISBN 978-0-8160-4671-3, Facts on File, Inc. 2004.
- ^ Refers to forest peoples of the North, including the Turkic-speaking Tuvans and Yakuts, and also Mongolic-speaking Altai Uriankhai. The ethnonym Uriankhai is etymologically Mongolic, compare Khalkha uria(n) "war motto" and khai, alternation of khan. Uriankhai people are possibly linked to the Wuluohun tribe of the Shiwei people, who were predominantly Mongolic-speaking.
- ^ Even though Chinese historians routinely ascribed Xiongnu origin to various nomadic peoples, such ascriptions do not necessarily indicate the subjects' exact origins; for examples, Xiongnu ancestry was ascribed to Turkic-speaking Göktürks and Tiele as well as Para-Mongolic-speaking Kumo Xi and Khitan.[102]
Language
Distribution
The Turkic languages constitute a language family of some 30 languages, spoken across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean, to Siberia and Manchuria and through to the Middle East. Some 170 million people have a Turkic language as their native language;[103] an additional 20 million people speak a Turkic language as a second language. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish proper, or Anatolian Turkish, the speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers.[104] More than one third of these are ethnic Turks of Turkey, dwelling predominantly in Turkey proper and formerly Ottoman-dominated areas of Southern and Eastern Europe and West Asia; as well as in Western Europe, Australia and the Americas as a result of immigration. The remainder of the Turkic people are concentrated in Central Asia, Russia, the Caucasus, China, and northern Iraq.
The Turkic language family was traditionally considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family.[105] Howeover since the 1950s, a majority of linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed cognates were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found, and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries. Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to mutual linguistic influences between the groups concerned.[106][107][108][109][110]
Alphabet
The Turkic alphabets are sets of related alphabets with letters (formerly known as
The earliest positively dated and read Turkic inscriptions date from the 8th century, and the alphabets were generally replaced by the
The Turkic
History
| History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century |
|---|
 |
Origins
The origins of the Turkic peoples has been a topic of much discussion.
A possible genealogical link of the Turkic languages to Mongolic and Tungusic languages, specifically a hypothetical homeland in
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Around 2,200 BC, the (agricultural) ancestors of the Turkic peoples probably migrated westwards into Mongolia, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle, in part borrowed from Iranian peoples. Given nomadic peoples such as Xiongnu, Rouran and Xianbei share underlying genetic ancestry "that falls into or close to the northeast Asian gene pool", the proto-Turkic language likely originated in northeastern Asia.[125]
Genetic data found that almost all modern Turkic peoples retained at least some shared ancestry associated with populations in "South Siberia and Mongolia" (SSM), supporting this region as the "Inner Asian Homeland (IAH) of the pioneer carriers of Turkic languages" which subsequently expanded into Central Asia. The main
A 2018
A 2023 study analyzed the DNA of
Early historical attestation
The earliest separate Turkic peoples, such as the Gekun (鬲昆) and Xinli (薪犁), appeared on the peripheries of the late Xiongnu confederation about 200 BCE[134][135] (contemporaneous with the Chinese Han dynasty)[136] and later among the Turkic-speaking Tiele[137] as Hegu (紇骨)[138] and Xue (薛).[75][76]
The Tiele (also known as Gaoche 高車, lit. "High Carts"),[139] may be related to the Xiongnu and the Dingling.[140] According to the Book of Wei, the Tiele people were the remnants of the Chidi (赤狄), the red Di people competing with the Jin in the Spring and Autumn period.[141] Historically they were established after the 6th century BCE.[135]
The Tiele were first mentioned in Chinese literature from the 6th to 8th centuries.
According to some researchers (Duan, Xue, Tang, Lung, Onogawa, etc.) the later Ashina tribe descended from the Tiele confederation.[145][146][147][148][149] The Tiele however were probably one of many early Turkic groups, ancestral to later Turkic populations.[150][151] However, according to Lee & Kuang (2017), Chinese histories do not describe the Ashina and the Göktürks as descending from the Dingling or the Tiele confederation.[152]
Xiongnu (3rd c. BCE – 1st c. CE)
It has even been suggested that the Xiongnu themselves, who were mentioned in Han dynasty records, were Proto-Turkic speakers.[153][154][155][156] The Turks may ultimately have been of Xiongnu descent.[157] Although little is known for certain about the Xiongnu language(s), it seems likely that at least a considerable part of Xiongnu tribes spoke a Turkic language.[158] Some scholars believe they were probably a confederation of various ethnic and linguistic groups.[159][160] According to a study by Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong, published in 2020 in the journal Evolutionary Human Sciences by Cambridge University Press, "the predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic". However, genetic studies found a mixture of western and eastern Eurasian ancestries, suggesting a large genetic diversity within the Xiongnu. The Turkic-related component may be brought by eastern Eurasian genetic substratum.[161]
Using the only extant possibly Xiongnu writings, the rock art of the
Steppe expansions
Göktürks – Turkic Khaganate (5th–8th c.)
The earliest certain mentioning of the politonym "Turk" was in the Chinese Book of Zhou. In the 540s AD, this text mentions that the Turks came to China's border seeking silk goods and a trade relationship. A Sogdian diplomat represented China in a series of embassies between the Western Wei dynasty and the Turks in the years 545 and 546.[166]
According to the Book of Sui and the
The original
The Göktürks (
Bulgars, Golden Horde and the Siberian Khanate
The
The Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in 922 and influenced the region as it controlled many trade routes. In the 13th century, Mongols invaded Europe and established the
In Siberia, the
Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th c.)
The
The official state religion of the early Uyghur Khaganate was
During the same time period, the Shatuo Turks emerged as power factor in Northern and Central China and were recognized by the Tang Empire as allied power.
In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them.[189] The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik.[190]
The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin (
The
After the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, the Shatuo Turks replaced them and created the Later Tang dynasty in 923. The Shatuo Turks ruled over a large part of northern China, including Beijing. They adopted Chinese names and united Turkic and Chinese traditions. Later Tang fell in 937 but the Shatuo rose to become a powerful faction of northern China. They created two other dynasties, including the Later Jin and Later Han and Northern Han (Later Han and Northern Han were ruled by the same family, with the latter being a rump state of the former). The Shatuo Liu Zhiyuan was a Buddhist and he worshipped the Mengshan Giant Buddha in 945. The Shatuo dynasties were replaced by the Han Chinese Song dynasty.[198][199] The Shatuo became the Ongud Turks living in Inner Mongolia after the Song dynasty conquered the last Shatuo dynasty of Northern Han.[200][201] The Ongud assimilated to the Mongols.[202][203][204][201]
The Yenisei Kyrgyz allied with China to destroy the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 840 AD.
Central Asia
Kangar union (659–750)
The Kangar Union (Qanghar Odaghu) was a
The elite of the Kangar tribes are believed to have had an
The Yatuks, a tribe within the Kangar state who could not accompany the Kangars as they migrated West, remained in the old lands, where they are known as the Kangly people, who are now part of the Uzbek, Kazakh, and Karakalpak tribes.[212]
Oghuz Yabgu State (766–1055)
The Oguz Yabgu State (Oguz il, meaning "Oguz Land", "Oguz Country")(750–1055) was a
Salar Oghuz migration
The
Iranian, Indian, Arabic, and Anatolian expansion
Turkic peoples and related groups migrated west from present-day
Persia
Ghaznavid dynasty (977–1186)
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The Ghaznavid dynasty (
Although the dynasty was of
Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)
The Seljuk Empire (
The Seljuk empire was founded by
Timurid Empire (1370–1507)
The
Central Asian khanates (1501–1920)
The
Afsharid dynasty (1736–1796)
The
Qajar dynasty (1789–1925)
The Qajar dynasty was created by the Turkic
South Asia
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The
Arab world
The Arab Muslim
Anatolia – Ottomans
After many battles, the western Oghuz Turks established their own state and later constructed the Ottoman Empire. The main migration of the Oghuz Turks occurred in medieval times, when they spread across most of Asia and into Europe and the Middle East.[176] They also took part in the military encounters of the Crusades.[252] In 1090–91, the Turkic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army.[253]
As the
Islamization
Turkic peoples like the
Modern history
The Ottoman Empire gradually grew weaker in the face of poor administration, repeated wars with
The Turkic peoples of Central Asia were not organized in nation-states during most of the 20th century, after the collapse of the
In 1991, after the disintegration of the
Physiognomy
According to historians Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang, Chinese official histories do not depict Turkic peoples as belonging to a single uniform entity called "Turks".
Historian Peter Golden has reported that genetic testing of the proposed descendants of the Ashina tribe does seem to confirm a link to the Indo-Iranians, emphasizing that "the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'".[264] Historian Emel Esin and Professor Xue Zongzheng have argued that West Eurasian features were typical of the royal Ashina clan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and that their appearance shifted to an East Asian one due to intermarriage with foreign nobility. As a result, by the time of Kul Tigin (684 AD), members of the Ashina dynasty had East Asian features.[265][266] A 2023 genetic study found that Empress Ashina (568–578 AD), a Royal Göktürk, had nearly entirely Ancient Northeast Asian origin, weakening the "western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses".[129] Lee and Kuang believe it is likely "early and medieval Turkic peoples themselves did not form a homogeneous entity and that some of them, non-Turkic by origin, had become Turkicised at some point in history."[267] They also suggest that many modern Turkic-speaking populations are not directly descended from early Turkic peoples.[267] Lee and Kuang concluded that "both medieval Chinese histories and modern DNA studies point to the fact that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations."[268]
Like Chinese historians, Medieval Muslim writers generally depicted the Turks as having an East Asian appearance. In the Ghaznavids' residential palace of Lashkari Bazar, there survives a partially conserved portrait depicting a turbaned and haloed adolescent figure with full cheeks, slanted eyes, and a small, sinuous mouth.[274] The Armenian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi describes the Turks of the Western Turkic Khaganate as "broad-faced, without eyelashes, and with long flowing hair like women".[275]
Kevin Alan Brook states that like "most nomadic Turks, the Western Turkic Khazars were racially and ethnically mixed."[277] Istakhri described Khazars as having black hair while Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi described them as having blue eyes, light skin, and reddish hair. Istakhri mentions that there were "Black Khazars" and "White Khazars." Most scholars believe these were political designations: black being lower class while white being higher class. Constantin Zuckerman argues that these "had physical and racial differences and explained that they stemmed from the merger of the Khazars with the Barsils."[278] Old East Slavic sources called the Khazars the "White Ugry" and the Magyars the "Black Ugry."[279] Soviet excavated Khazar remains show Slavic-type, European-type, and a minority Mongoloid-type skulls.[278]
The Yenisei Kyrgyz are mentioned in the New Book of Tang as having the same script and language as the Uyghurs but "The people are all tall and big and have red hair, white faces, and green eyes."[280][note 2] The New Book of Tang also states that the neighboring Boma tribe resembled the Kyrgyz but their language was different, which may imply the Kyrgyz were originally a non-Turkic people, who were later Turkicized through inter-tribal marriages.[280] According to Gardizi, the Kyrgyz were mixed with "Saqlabs" (Slavs), which explains the red hair and white skin among the Kyrgyz, while the New Book states that the Kyrgyz "intermixed with the Dingling."[285][286] The Kyrgyz "regarded those with black eyes as descending from [Li] Ling," a Han dynasty general who defected to the Xiongnu.[287]
In a Chinese legal statute from the early period of the
Byzantine historians of the 11th-12th centuries provided description of Turkmens as very different from the Greeks.
Remarks
- ^ For its etymology see Kangar union#Etymology
- ^ 9th-century author Duan Chengshi described the Kyrgyz tribe (Jiankun buluo 堅昆部落) as "yellow-haired, green-eyed, red-mustached [and red-]bearded".[281] New Book of Tang (finished in 1060) describes Alats, a medieval Turkic people, as resembling Kyrgyzes[282] who were "all tall, red-haired, pale-faced, green-irised";[283] New Book of Tang also states that Kyrgyzes regarded black hair as "infelicitous" and insisted that black-eyed individuals were descendants of Han general Li Ling.[284]
Archaeology
- Xinglongwa culture
- Hongshan culture
- Čaatas culture
- Askiz culture
- Kurumchi culture
- Saltovo-Mayaki
- Saymaluu-Tash
- Bilär
- Por-Bazhyn
- Ordu-Baliq
- Jankent
International organizations
The
TÜRKSOY
Türksoy carries out activities to strengthen cultural ties between Turkic peoples. One of the main goals to transmit their common cultural heritage to future generations and promote it around the world.[292]
Every year, one city in the Turkic world is selected as the "Cultural Capital of the Turkic World". Within the framework of events to celebrate the Cultural Capital of the Turkic World, numerous cultural events are held, gathering artists, scholars and intellectuals, giving them the opportunity to exchange their experiences, as well as promoting the city in question internationally.[293]
Organization of Turkic States
The Organization of Turkic States, founded on 3 November 2009, by the Nakhchivan Agreement confederation, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkey, aims to integrate these organizations into a tighter geopolitical framework.
The member countries are
Demographics
The distribution of people of Turkic cultural background ranges from Siberia, across Central Asia, to Southern Europe. As of 2011[update] the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan, in addition to Turkey and Iran. Additionally, Turkic people are found within Crimea, Altishahr region of western China, northern Iraq, Israel, Russia, Afghanistan, Cyprus, and the Balkans: Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and former Yugoslavia.
A small number of Turkic people also live in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Small numbers inhabit eastern Poland and the south-eastern part of Finland.[299] There are also considerable populations of Turkic people (originating mostly from Turkey) in Germany, United States, and Australia, largely because of migrations during the 20th century.
Sometimes ethnographers group Turkic people into six branches: the
The genetic distances between the different populations of Uzbeks scattered across Uzbekistan is no greater than the distance between many of them and the Karakalpaks. This suggests that Karakalpaks and Uzbeks have very similar origins. The Karakalpaks have a somewhat greater bias towards the eastern markers than the Uzbeks.[300]
Historical population:
| Year | Population |
|---|---|
| 1 AD | 2–2.5 million? |
| 2013 | 150–200 million |
The following incomplete list of Turkic people shows the respective groups' core areas of settlement and their estimated sizes (in millions):
| People | Primary homeland | Population | Modern language | Predominant religion and sect |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Turkish people | Turkey | 70 M | Turkish | Sunni Islam |
| Azerbaijanis | Iranian Azerbaijan, Republic of Azerbaijan | 30–35 M | Azerbaijani | Shia Islam (65%), Sunni Islam (35%) Hanafi ).
|
| Uzbeks | Uzbekistan | 28.3 M | Uzbek | Sunni Islam |
| Kazakhs | Kazakhstan | 13.8 M | Kazakh | Sunni Islam |
| Uyghurs | Altishahr (China) | 9 M | Uyghur | Sunni Islam |
| Turkmens | Turkmenistan | 8 M | Turkmen | Sunni Islam |
| Tatars | Tatarstan (Russia) | 7 M | Tatar | Sunni Islam |
| Kyrgyzs | Kyrgyzstan | 4.5 M | Kyrgyz | Sunni Islam |
Bashkirs
|
Bashkortostan (Russia) | 2 M | Bashkir | Sunni Islam |
| Crimean Tatars | Crimea (Russia/Ukraine)
|
0.5 to 2 M | Crimean Tatar | Sunni Islam |
| Chuvashes | Chuvashia (Russia) | 1.7 M | Chuvash | Orthodox Christianity |
| Qashqai | Southern Iran (Iran) | 0.9 M | Qashqai | Shia Islam |
| Karakalpaks | Karakalpakstan (Uzbekistan) | 0.6 M | Karakalpak | Sunni Islam |
| Yakuts | Yakutia (Russia) | 0.5 M | Sakha
|
Orthodox Christianity and Turkic Paganism |
| Kumyks | Dagestan (Russia) | 0.4 M | Kumyk | Sunni Islam |
Balkars
|
Karachay-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria (Russia) | 0.4 M | Karachay-Balkar
|
Sunni Islam |
| Tuvans | Tuva (Russia) | 0.3 M | Tuvan | Tibetan Buddhism |
| Gagauzs | Gagauzia (Moldova) | 0.2 M | Gagauz | Orthodox Christianity |
| Turkic Karaites and Krymchaks | Ukraine | 0.004 M | Karaim and Krymchak | Judaism |
Cuisine
Markets in the steppe region had a limited range of foodstuffs available—mostly
Nomadic Turks cooked their meals in a qazan, a pot similar to a cauldron; a wooden rack called a qasqan can be used to prepare certain steamed foods, like the traditional meat dumplings called manti. They also used a saj, a griddle that was traditionally placed on stones over a fire, and shish. In later times, the Persian tava was borrowed from the Persians for frying, but traditionally nomadic Turks did most of their cooking using the qazan, saj and shish. Meals were served in a bowl, called a chanaq, and eaten with a knife (bïchaq) and spoon (qashi̅q). Both bowl and spoon were historically made from wood. Other traditional utensils used in food preparation included a thin rolling pin called oqlaghu, a colander called süzgu̅çh, and a grinding stone called tāgirmān.[303]
Medieval grain dishes included preparations of whole grains, soups, porridges, breads and pastries. Fried or toasted whole grains were called qawïrmach, while köchä was crushed grain that was cooked with dairy products. Salma were broad
There are many types of bread doughs in Turkic cuisine.
Herd animals were usually slaughtered during the winter months and various types of sausages were prepared to preserve the meats, including a type of sausage called
Religion
Early Turkic mythology and Tengrism
Early
The
Religious conversions
Buddhism
Buddhism played an important role in the history of Turkic peoples, with the first Turkic state adopting and supporting the spread of Buddhism being the Turkic Shahis and the Göktürks. The Göktürks syncretized Buddhism with their traditional religion Tengrism and also incorporated elements of the Iranian traditional religions, such as Zoroastrianism. Buddhism had its height among the Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.[304] Buddhism had also considerable impact and influence onto various other historical Turkic groups. In pre-Islamic times, Buddhism and Tengrism coexisted, with several Buddhist temples, monasteries, figures and steles, with images of Buddhist characters and sceneries, were constructed by various Turkic tribes. Throughout Kazakhstan, there exist various historical Buddhist sites, including an underground Buddhist cave monastery. After the Arab conquest of Central Asia, and the spread of Islam among locals, Buddhism (and Tengrism) started to lose ground, however a certain influence of the Buddhist teachings remained during the next centuries.[305]
Tengri Bögü Khan initially made the now extinct
Islam
Most Turkic people today are
Christianity
The major Christian-Turkic peoples are the
Animism
Today there are several groups that support a revival of the ancient traditions. Especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, many in Central Asia converted or openly practice animistic and shamanistic rituals. It is estimated that about 60% of Kyrgyz people practice a form of animistic rituals. In Kazakhstan there are about 54,000 followers of the ancient traditions.[326][327]
Muslim Turks and non-Muslim Turks
The Uyghur Turks, who once belonged to a variety of religions, were gradually Islamized during a period spanning the 10th and 13th centuries. Some scholars have linked the phenomenon of recently Islamized Uyghur soldiers recruited by the Mongol Empire to the slow conversion of Uyghur populations to Islam.[328][329]
The non-Muslim Turks' worship of Tengri and other gods was mocked and insulted by the Muslim Turk Mahmud al-Kashgari, who wrote a verse referring to them – The Infidels – May God destroy them![330][331]
The Basmil, Yabāḳu and Uyghur states were among the Turkic peoples who fought against the Kara-Khanids spread of Islam. The Islamic Kara-Khanids were made out of
Kashgari claimed that the Prophet assisted in a miraculous event where 700,000 Yabāqu infidels were defeated by 40,000 Muslims led by Arslān Tegīn claiming that fires shot sparks from gates located on a green mountain towards the Yabāqu.[333] The Yabaqu were a Turkic people.[334]
Mahmud al-Kashgari insulted the Uyghur Buddhists as "Uighur dogs" and called them "Tats", which referred to the "Uighur infidels" according to the Tuxsi and Taghma, while other Turks called Persians "tat".[335][336] While Kashgari displayed a different attitude towards the Turks diviners beliefs and "national customs", he expressed towards Buddhism a hatred in his Diwan where he wrote the verse cycle on the war against Uighur Buddhists. Buddhist origin words like toyin (a cleric or priest) and Burxān or Furxan (meaning Buddha, acquiring the generic meaning of "idol" in the Turkic language of Kashgari) had negative connotations to Muslim Turks.[337][331]
Old sports
Tepuk
Mahmud al-Kashgari in his Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, described a game called "tepuk" among Turks in Central Asia. In the game, people try to attack each other's castle by kicking a ball made of sheep leather.[338] (see also: Cuju)
Kyz kuu
Kyz kuu (chase the girl) has been played by Turkic people at festivals since time immemorial.[339]
Jereed
Horses have been essential and even sacred animals for Turks living as nomadic tribes in the Central Asian steppes. Turks were born, grew up, lived, fought and died on horseback. Jereed became the most important sporting and ceremonial game of Turkish people.[340]
Kokpar
The kokpar began with the nomadic Turkic peoples who have come from farther north and east spreading westward from China and Mongolia between the 10th and 15th centuries.[341]
Jigit
"
Gallery
Battle, hunting and blacksmithing scenes in Turkic rock art of the early Middle Ages in Altai
-
Turk vassal blacksmiths under Mongolian rule -
Turkic hunting scene, Gokturk period Altai -
Battle scene of a Turkic horseman with typical long hair (Gokturk period, Altai)
.png)
Bezeklik caves and Mogao grottoes
Images of Buddhist and Manichean
-
Old Uyghur king from Turfan, from the murals at the Dunhuang Mogao Caves. -
Old Uyghur prince from the Bezeklik murals. -
Old Uyghur woman from the Bezeklik murals. -
Old Uyghur Princess. -
Old Uyghur Princesses from the Bezeklik murals. -
Old Uyghur Princes from the Bezeklik murals. -
Old Uyghur Prince from the Bezeklik murals. -
Old Uyghur noble from the Bezeklik murals. -
Old Uyghur Manichaean Elect depicted on a temple banner from Qocho. -
Old Uyghur donor from the Bezeklik murals. -
Old Uyghur Manichaean Electae from Qocho. -
Old Uyghur Manichaean clergymen from Qocho. -
-
Manicheans from Qocho
.jpg){kind=small}
Medieval times
-
KhanOmurtag of Bulgaria, from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes. -
![Ghaznavid portrait, Palace of Lashkari Bazar.[274]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portrait_from_the_Palace_courtroom%2C_Lashkari_Bazar.jpg/92px-Portrait_from_the_Palace_courtroom%2C_Lashkari_Bazar.jpg)
Ghaznavid portrait, Palace of Lashkari Bazar.[274]
![Ghaznavid portrait, Palace of Lashkari Bazar.[274]](/File:Portrait_from_the_Palace_courtroom,_Lashkari_Bazar.jpg)
Modern times
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Azerbaijanigirls in traditional dress. -
Bashkir boys in national dress. -
AChuvashgirl in traditional dress. -
Khakas peoplewith traditional instruments. -
Nogai man in national costume. -
Turkish girls in their traditional clothes,Balikesir Province. -
Turkmen girl in national dress. -
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Kazakh man in traditional clothing. -
Uzbek with traditional cuisine. -
Kyrgyz traditional eagle hunter. -
Tuvan traditional shaman.
.jpg)
See also
References
- ^ a b c Yunusbayev et al. 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1,
Approximately 200 million people,... speak nearly 40 Turkic languages and dialects. Turkey is the largest Turkic state, with about 60 million ethnic Turks living in its territories.
- ISBN 978-1-305-85495-6,
The greatest are the 65 million Turks of Turkey, who speak Turkish, a Turkic language...
- ^ "Uzbekistan". Statistics Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan. 19 August 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2022. "Population: 34,600,000 (January 2021 est.)" "Ethnic groups: Uzbek 84.6%, Russian 2.1%, Tajik 4.9%, Kazakh 2.4%, Karakalpak 2.2%, other 4.1% (2021 est.)" Assuming Uzbek, Kazakh and Karakalpak are included as Turks, 84.6% + 2.4% + 2.2% = 89.2%. 89.2% of 34.6m = 31.9m
- ^ "Azerbaijani (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 24 January 2012. (15 million)
- ^ Egbert Jahn, (2009). Nationalism in Late and Post-Communist Europe, p. 293 (20 mil)
- ^ Library of Congress – Federal Research Division – Country Profile: Iran, May 2008, page 5 [1]
- ^ "Kazakhstan". The World Factbook. Retrieved 21 December 2014. "Population: 17,948,816 (July 2014 est.)" "Ethnic groups: Kazakh (Qazaq) 63.1%, Russian 23.7%, Uzbek 2.9%, Ukrainian 2.1%, Uighur 1.4%, Tatar 1.3%, German 1.1%, other 4.4% (2009 est.)" Assuming Kazakh, Uzbek, Uighur and Tatar are included as Turks, 63.1% + 2.9% + 1.4% + 1.3% = 68.7%. 68.7% of 17.9m = 12.3m
- ^ "China". The World Factbook. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
- ^ "Azerbaijan". The World Factbook. Retrieved 30 July 2016. "Population: 9,780,780 (July 2015 est.)"
- ^ "Census 2021: 84.6% of population define themselves as Bulgarians, 8.4% Turks, 4.4% Roma". 24 November 2022.
- ^ "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
- ^ "Uzbeks and Turkmens – Minorities and indigenous peoples in Afghanistan". World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 19 June 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-230-27135-7.
- ISBN 978-1-107-06261-0.
- ISBN 978-1-118-04028-7.
- ^ "Unpublished Census Provides Rare and Unvarnished Look at Turkmenistan". Jamestown.
- ^ "First (actual) demographic data for Turkmenistan released". www.asianews.it.
- ^ "Kyrgyzstan". The World Factbook. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-317-42368-3
- ^ Bassem, Wassim (2016). "Iraq's Turkmens call for independent province". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 17 October 2016.
- ^ "Tajikistan". The World Factbook. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
- ^ "Obama, recognize us". St. Louis American. Archived from the original on 5 September 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ISSN 0949-1856): Presseausschnitte zu Politik, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft in Nordafrika und dem Nahen und Mittleren Osten. Autors: Deutsches Orient–Institut; Deutsches Übersee–Institut. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient–Institut, 1996, seite 33.
- ^ "All-Ukrainian population census 2001 – General results of the census – National composition of population". State Statistics Committee of Ukraine. 2003. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
- ^ TRNC SPO, Economic and Social Indicators 2014, pages=2–3
- ISBN 978-1-137-49315-6.
- ^ "Mongolia". The World Factbook. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
- ^ "2020 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS OF MONGOLIA /summary/". Archived from the original on 15 July 2021.
- ^ Al-Akhbar. "Lebanese Turks Seek Political and Social Recognition". Al Akhbar English. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
- ^ "Tension adds to existing wounds in Lebanon". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
- ^ Ahmed, Yusra (2015), Syrian Turkmen refugees face double suffering in Lebanon, Zaman Al Wasl, archived from the original on 23 August 2017, retrieved 11 October 2016
- ^ "Syria's Turkmen Refugees Face Cruel Reality in Lebanon". Syrian Observer. 2015. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
- ^ "2017 Anuarul Statisitc al Republicii Moldova" (PDF) (in Romanian). Biroul Național de Statistică al Republicii Moldova. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
- ^ "North Macedonia". The World Factbook. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
- ^ "Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002" (PDF). Republic of Macedonia State Statistical Office. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica. Turkic peoples. "Turkic peoples, any of various peoples whose members speak languages belonging to the Turkic subfamily..."
- ^ Yunusbayev et al. 2015, p. 1. "The Turkic peoples represent a diverse collection of ethnic groups defined by the Turkic languages."
- ^ Uchiyama et al. 2020: "Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia (e.g. Róna-Tas, Reference Róna-Tas1991, p. 35; Golden, Reference Golden1992, pp. 124–127; Menges, Reference Menges1995, pp. 16–19)."
- ^ a b Golden 2011, pp. 37–38.
- ^ a b Uchiyama et al. 2020: "The ultimate Proto-Turkic homeland may have been located in a more compact area, most likely in Eastern Mongolia"
- ^ a b Lee & Kuang 2017: "The best candidate for the Turkic Urheimat would then be northern and western Mongolia and Tuva, where all these haplogroups could have intermingled, rather than eastern and southern Mongolia..."
- ^ Uchiyama et al. 2020:"To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe."
- ^
- Lee 2023, p. 4: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The “Turks” intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
- Findley 2005, p. 18: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin, Dzungaria, and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
- Golden, Peter B. (25 July 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal. 21 (2): 291–327. S2CID 166026934."Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian [Saka] and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
- Lee & Kuang 2017: "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations"
- ^ "Kultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG". Orkhon inscriptions
- Bain Tsokto inscriptions
- S2CID 166026934.
- ^ Golden 2011, Ethnogenesis in the tribal zone: The Shaping of the Turks.
- ^ Lee, Joo-Yup (2016). "The Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central Asia". Central Asiatic Journal. 59 (1–2): 103–108.
- ^ Maue, Dieter. "The Khüis Tolgoi inscription – signs and sounds". Academia.edu. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
- ^ Vovin, Alexander. "Interpretation of the Hüis Tolgoi Inscription". Academia.edu. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
- S2CID 198833565.
- ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
- ^ "新亞研究所 – 典籍資料庫". Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Moriyasu & Ochir 1999, p. 123
- ^ Pliny, Natural History – Harvard University Press, vol. II (Libri III-VII); reprinted 1961, p. 351
- ^ Pomponius Mela's Description of the World, Pomponius Mela, University of Michigan Press, 1998, p. 67
- ^ Prof. Dr. Ercümend Kuran, Türk Adı ve Türklük Kavramı, Türk Kültürü Dergisi, Yıl, XV, S. 174, Nisan 1977. s. 18–20.
- ^ Minns, Ellis Hovell (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 102.
- ^ Peter B. Golden, Introduction to the History of the Turkic People, p. 12: "... source (Herod.IV.22) and other authors of antiquity, Togarma of the Old Testament, Turukha/Turuska of Indic sources, Turukku of Assyrian..."
- ^ German Archaeological Institute. Department Teheran, Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran, Vol. 19, Dietrich Reimer, 1986, p. 90
- ^ Sinor, Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Page 295
- ^ Golden, Peter B. "Türks and Iranians: Aspects of Türk and Khazaro-Iranian Interaction". Turcologica (105): 25.
- ^ (Bŭlgarska akademii︠a︡ na naukite. Otdelenie za ezikoznanie/ izkustvoznanie/ literatura, Linguistique balkanique, Vol. 27–28, 1984, p. 17
- ^ "Türk" in Turkish Etymological Dictionary, Sevan Nişanyan.
- ^ Faruk Suümer, Oghuzes (Turkmens): History, Tribal organization, Sagas, Turkish World Research Foundation, 1992, p. 16)
- American Heritage Dictionary (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition – "Turk"". bartleby.com. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ Golden, Peter B. "Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic Peoples". (2006) In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawaiʻi Press. p. 143.
- ^ Golden, Peter B. (1992), An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, p. 93-95
- ^ T. Allsen, P. B. Golden, R. K. Kovalev, and A. P. Martinez (2012), ARCHIVUM EURASIAEMEDII AEV, p. 85
- ^ Clauson, G. An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-13th Century Turkish (1972). p. 542-543
- ^ Aydemir, Hakan (2–3 December 2022). "TÜRK Adının Kökeni Üzerine (On the origin of the ethnonym TÜRK 'Turkic, Turkish') + an English abstract". In Şahin, İbrahim; Akgün, Atıf (eds.). Türk Dunyası Sosyal Bilimler - Sempozyumu (in Turkish). İzmir: Ege University.
- ^ The Peoples of the Steppe Frontier in Early Chinese Sources, Edwin G. Pulleyblank, page 35
- ^ Golden 2011, p. 27.
- ^ a b Pulleyblank, "Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China", p. VII 21–26.
- ^ a b Duan, "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele", p. 370.
- ^ Theobald, Ulrich (2012). "Xiajiasi 黠戛斯, Qirqiz" for ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
- ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G. "The Name of the Kirghiz" in Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 34, No. 1/2 (1990). Harrassowitz Verlag. page 98-99 of 98–108.
- ^ Hyun Jin Kim: Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press, 2013. pp.175–176.
- ^ Lee & Kuang 2017, p. 200"Historians know with certainty that the Dingling [...] were a Turkic people"
- ^ Xu Elina-Qian, Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 176.
- ^ Dickens 2018, p. 1346: "Greek authors [...] frequently applied the name Scythians to later nomadic groups who had no relation whatever to the original Scythians"
- ^ Ivantchik 2018.
- ^ G. Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica II, p. 236–39
- ^ Jean-Paul Roux, Historie des Turks – Deux mille ans du Pacifique á la Méditerranée. Librairie Arthème Fayard, 2000.
- ISBN 0-89003-071-5, p. 305. "The origins of the Karamanlides have long been disputed, there being two basic theories on the subject. According to one, they are the remnants of the Greek-speaking Byzantine population which, though it remained Orthodox, was linguistically Turkified. The second theory holds that they were originally Turkish soldiers which the Byzantine emperors had settled in Anatolia in large numbers and who retained their language and Christian religion after the Turkish conquests..."
- ^ Baydar 2016, p. 21
- ^ R. Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1970, p191.
- ^ Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia pp. 400-401.
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica. Turkic peoples.
- ^ Pritsak O. & Golb. N: Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century, Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982.
- ^ "Timur Archived 2013-09-22 at the Wayback Machine", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001–05, Columbia University Press.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica article: Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids, Online Edition, 2007.
- ISBN 978-1-135-08828-6.
- ^ Peter Benjamin Golden, (1992), An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, p. 110
- ^ *Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000). "Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity", Early China. p. 20
- ^ Wei Shou. Book of Wei. Vol. 1
- ^ Tseng, Chin Yin (2012). The Making of the Tuoba Northern Wei: Constructing Material Cultural Expressions in the Northern Wei Pingcheng Period (398–494 CE) (PhD). University of Oxford. p. 1.
- ^ Wei Shou. Book of Wei. vol. 91 "蠕蠕，東胡之苗裔也，姓郁久閭氏。" tr. "Rúrú, offsprings of Dōnghú, surnamed Yùjiŭlǘ"
- ^ Book of Song. vol 95. "芮芮一號大檀，又號檀檀，亦匈奴別種" tr. "Ruìruì, one appellation is Dàtán, also called Tántán, likewise a Xiōngnú splinter stock"
- ^ Xu Elina-Qian, Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 179-180
- ^ Lee, Joo-Yup (2016). "The Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central Asia". Central Asiatic Journal. 59 (1–2): 105.
- ^ Turkic Language family tree entries provide the information on the Turkic-speaking populations and regions.
- ISBN 978-0-415-25004-7.
- ^ Turkic peoples, Encyclopædia Britannica, Online Academic Edition, 2008
- ^ Lyle Campbell and Mauricio J. Mixco (2007): A Glossary of Historical Linguistics; University of Utah Press. Page 7.
- ^ Johanna Nichols (1992) Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago University Press. Page 4.
- ^ R. M. W. Dixon (1997): The Rise and Fall of Languages. Cambridge University Press. Page 32.
- ^ Asya Pereltsvaig (2012) Languages of the World, An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. Pages 211–216.
- .
- ^ Vasiliev D.D. Graphical fund of Turkic runiform writing monuments in Asian areal, М., 1983, p. 44
- ^ Tekin 1993, p. 1
- ^ Yunusbayev et al. 2015, pp. 1–2.
- ^ PMID 25898006.
- S2CID 198684158, retrieved 28 September 2023
The ancient Turkic Urheimat appears to have been located in Southern Siberia from the Lake Baikal region to Eastern Mongolia. The "Proto-Turks" in their Southern Siberian-Mongolian "homeland" were in contact with speakers of Eastern Iranian (Scytho-Sakas, who were also in Mongolia), Uralic and Paleo-Siberian languages.
- ^ Janhunen 2003, p. 203: "There is, indeed, reason to assume that Mongolia is primarily the source region of the Turkic language family, while the Mongolic homeland was located further to the east, in western Manchuria."
- PMID 33618348.
- ISSN 0176-4225.
- S2CID 212688205.
- ^ a b Nelson et al. 2020.
- ^ a b Li et al. 2020.
- ^ a b c d Uchiyama et al. 2020.
- ^ S2CID 245849003.
All Altaic-speaking populations were a mixture of dominant Siberian Neolithic ancestry and non-negligible YRB ancestry, suggesting that Altaic-people and their language were more likely to originate from the Northeast Asia (mostly likely the ARB and surrounding regions as the primary common ancestry identified here) and further experienced influence from Neolithic YRB farmers. All Altaic people but eastern and southern Mongolic-speaking populations possessed a high proportion of West Eurasian-related ancestry, in accordance with the linguistically documented language borrowing in Turkic language.
- ^ Yang, Meng & Zhang 2023.
- ^ Uchiyama et al. 2020: "Although current genetic evidence is not adequate to track the exact time and location for the origin of the proto-Turkic language, it is clear that it probably originated somewhere in northeastern Asia given the fact that the nomadic groups, such as the Rouran, Xiongnu and the Xianbei, all share a substratum genetic ancestry that falls into or close to the northeast Asian gene pool (Ning et al., Reference Ning, Li, Wang, Zhang, Li, Wu and Cuiin press; Li et al., Reference Li, Zhang, Zhao, Chen, Ochir, Sarenbilige and Zhou2018)."
- S2CID 13670282.
The diversification within the Turkic languages suggests that several waves of migrations occurred35, and on the basis of the impact of local languages gradual assimilation to local populations were already assumed36. The East Asian migration starting with the Xiongnu complies well with the hypothesis that early Turkic was their major language37. Further migrations of East Asians westwards find a good linguistic correlate in the influence of Mongolian on Turkic and Iranian in the last millennium38. As such, the genomic history of the Eurasian steppe is the story of a gradual transition from Bronze Age pastoralists of western Eurasian ancestry, towards mounted warriors of increased East Asian ancestry – a process that continued well into historical times.
- PMID 35031610.
Modern DNA studies suggested that the Indo-Iranian group was present in Central Asia before the Turko-Mongol group11, maybe as early as Neolithic times; the Turko-Mongol group emerged later from the admixture between a group related to local Indo-Iranian and a South-Siberian or Mongolian group11,13,14 with a high East-Asian ancestry (around 60%).
- PMID 36006373.
By contrast, the Kyrgyz, together with other Turkic-speaking populations, originated from the admixture since the Iron Age. The Historical Era gene flow derived from the Eastern Steppe with the representative of Mongolia_Xiongnu_o1 made a more substantial contribution to Kyrgyz and other Turkic-speaking populations (i.e., Kazakh, Uyghur, Turkmen, and Uzbek; 34.9–55.2%) higher than that to the Tajik populations (11.6–18.6%; fig. 4A), suggesting Tajiks suffer fewer impacts of the recent admixtures (Martínez-Cruz et al. 2011). Consequently, the Tajik populations generally present patterns of genetic continuity of Central Asians since the Bronze Age. Our results are consistent with linguistic and genetic evidence that the spreading of Indo-European speakers into Central Asia was earlier than the expansion of Turkic speakers (Kuz′mina and Mallory 2007; Yunusbayev et al. 2015).
- ^ a b c d e Yang, Meng & Zhang 2023
- ^ Yang, Meng & Zhang 2023: "The early Medieval Türk (earlyMed_Turk) derived the major ancestry from ANA at a proportion of 62.2%, the remainder from BMAC (10.7%) and Western Steppe Afanasievo nomad (27.1%) (Figs. 1C, 1D; Table S2E)."
- ^ Yang, Meng & Zhang 2023: "Central Steppe Türk (Kyrgyzstan_Turk and Kazakhstan_Turk) could be modeled as an admixture of ANA (Mongolia_N_North), BMAC, and West Steppe pastoralists (Afanasievo) (P = 0.0196)"
- ^ Yang, Meng & Zhang 2023: "In contrast, the early West Xiongnu (earlyXiongnu_west) and late Sarmatian Xiongnu (lateXiongnu_Sarmatian) derived ancestry mainly from West Eurasian; for example, early West Xiongnu exhibited 68.4% Afanasievo‐related ancestry. Among the Central Steppe pastoralists, Wusun, Kangju, and Tianshan Hun derived a majority of their ancestry (62.4%–73%) from Western Steppe nomadic Afanasievo groups with the remainder (37.6%–27%) characterized as BMAC (the Bactria‐Margiana Archaeological Complex) and East Eurasian. The Turkic Karluk, Kipchak, and Karakhanid could be modeled derived 35%–50.6% of ancestry from Afanasievo, 10.5%–21.7% from BMAC, and 38.9%–49.4% from YR_IA."
- PMID 33157037.
From the late first millennium BCE onward, a series of hierarchical and centrally organized empires arose on the Eastern Steppe, notably the Xiongnu (209 BCE–98 CE), Türkic (552–742 CE), Uyghur (744–840 CE), and Khitan (916–1125 CE) empires...Genetic data for the subsequent Early Medieval period are relatively sparse and uneven, and few Xianbei or Rouran sites have yet been identified during the 400-year gap between the Xiongnu and Türkic periods. We observed high genetic heterogeneity and diversity during the Türkic and Uyghur periods...
- Records of the Grand Historian Vol. 110 "後北服渾庾、屈射、丁零、鬲昆、薪犁之國。於是匈奴貴人大臣皆服，以冒頓單于爲賢。" tr. "Later [he went] north [and] subjugated the nations of Hunyu, Qushe, Dingling, Gekun, and Xinli. Therefore, the Xiongnu nobles and dignitaries all admired [and] regarded Modun chanyuas capable"
- ^ a b Peter Zieme: The Old Turkish Empires in Mongolia. In: Genghis Khan and his heirs. The Empire of the Mongols. Special tape for Exhibition 2005/2006, p. 64
- ^ Findley (2005), p. 29.
- Suishu, vol. 84
- ^ Pulleyblank, E. G. "The Name of the Kirghiz." Central Asiatic Journal 34, no. 1/2 (1990). p. 99
- ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1991). "The 'High Carts': A Turkish-Speaking People before the Türks". Asia Major. Third series. 3 (1). Academia Sinica: 21–22.
- ^ Weishu, vol. 103 "高車，蓋古赤狄之餘種也，初號為狄歷，北方以為勑勒，諸夏以為高車、丁零。其語略與匈奴同而時有小異，或云其先匈奴之甥也" tr.
- ^ "丁零—铁勒的西迁及其所建西域政权". Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Cheng Fangyi. "The Research on the Identification Between Tiele (鐵勒) and the Oghuric Tribes". Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi: 81–114.
- ^ Cheng (2012), p. 84-87
- .
- ^ Tang, Li. "A Brief Description of the Early and Medieval Türks" in Turkic Christians in Central Asia and China (5th – 14th Centuries), Studies in Turkic philology. Minzu University Press. p. VII.
- ^ Duan: Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele. 1988, pp. 39–41
- ^ Xue, Zongzheng History of Turks (1992). 39–85
- ^ Rachel Lung, Interpreters in Early Imperial China, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 48 "Türk, or Türküt, refers to a state of Ašina clan (of Tiele [鐵勒] tribe by ancestral lineage)"
- ^ Duan: Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele. 1988, pp. 39–41
- ^ Suribadalaha, "New Studies of the Origins of the Mongols", p. 46–47
- ^ Cheng, Fangyi. "The Research on the Identification Between Tiele and the Oghuric Tribes".
- ^ Lee & Kuang 2017, p. 201-202.
- ISBN 0-8047-2353-2.
- S2CID 218935871.
- ^ Silk-Road:Xiongnu
- ^ "An Introduction to the Turkic Tribes". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- Xiōngnúdescent, part of the military nobility of the Róurán.
- ^ Lebedynsky (2006), p. 59.
- ^ Nicola di Cosmo, Ancient China and its Enemies, S. 163ff.
- ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.
- ^ Savelyev & Jeong 2020:"Specifically, individuals from Iron Age steppe and Xiongnu have an ancestry related to present-day and ancient Iranian/Caucasus/Turan populations in addition to the ancestry components derived from the Late Bronze Age populations. We estimate that they derive between 5 and 25% of their ancestry from this new source, with 18% for Xiongnu (Table 2). We speculate that the introduction of this new western Eurasian ancestry may be linked to the Iranian elements in the Xiongnu linguistic material, while the Turkic-related component may be brought by their eastern Eurasian genetic substratum." Table 2: Sintashta_MLBA, 0.239; Khovsgol LBA, 0.582; Gonur1 BA 0.178
- ^ MA Li-qing On the new evidence on Xiongnu's writings. Archived 19 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine(Wanfang Data: Digital Periodicals, 2004)
- ^ Paola Demattè Writing the Landscape: the Petroglyphs of Inner Mongolia and Ningxia Province (China). (Paper presented at the First International Conference of Eurasian Archaeology, University of Chicago, 3–4 May 2002.)
- ISBN 92-3-102846-4
- ISBN 978-1-78831-722-1.
The collapse of the Hephthalite domains made neighbours of the Türk Khāqānate and the Sasanian Empire, both sharing a border that ran the length of the River Oxus. Further Turkish expansion to the west and around the Caspian Sea saw them dominate the western steppes and its people and extend this frontier down to the Caucasus where they also shared a border with the Sasanians. Khusrow is noted at the time for improving the fortifications on either side of the Caspian, Bāb al-Abwāb at Derbent and the Great Wall of Gorgān.
- ISBN 978-90-04-47117-7. "The Türks, while still vassals of the Rouran, are first mentioned in the Zhoushu (chap. 50) in the early 540s when they came to the border seeking to obtain silk goods and establish a relationship with China. Shortly thereafter a series of embassies in 545 and 546 between the Türks and the Western Wei followed in which a Sogdian, An Nuopantuo (Nakbanda), represented China."
- ^ a b Wei Zheng et al., Suishu, vol. 84 quote: "突厥之先，平涼雜胡也，姓阿史那氏。後魏太武滅沮渠氏，阿史那以五百家奔茹茹，世居金山，工於鐵作。金山狀如兜鍪，俗呼兜鍪為「突厥」，因以為號。"
- ^ Du You, Tongdian vol. 197 quote: "突厥之先，平涼今平涼郡雜胡也，蓋匈奴之別種，姓阿史那氏。後魏太武滅沮渠氏，沮渠茂虔都姑臧，謂之北涼，為魏所滅。阿史那以五百家奔蠕蠕，代居金山，狀如兜鍪，俗呼兜鍪為「突厥」，因以為號。"
- ^ Linghu Defen et al., Zhoushu, vol. 50 quote: "突厥者，蓋匈奴之別種，姓阿史那氏。"
- ^ Beishi "vol. 99 – section Tujue" quote: "突厥者，其先居西海之右，獨為部落，蓋匈奴之別種也。" translation: "The Tujue, their ancestors dwelt on the right bank of the Western Sea; a lone tribe, probably a separate branch of the Xiongnu"
- ^ Golden, Peter B. (August 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal, 21 (2): p. 298 of 291–327, fn. 36.
- ^ Xin Tangshu, vol. 215A. "突厥阿史那氏, 蓋古匈奴北部也." "The Ashina family of the Turk probably were the northern tribes of the ancient Xiongnu." quoted and translated in Xu (2005), Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005
- ^ Zhoushu, "vol. 50" "或云突厥之先出於索國，在匈奴之北。"
- ^ Beishi "vol. 99 – section Tujue" quote: "又曰突厥之先，出於索國，在匈奴之北。"
- ^ Zhoushu, "vol. 50" quote: "居金山之陽，為茹茹鐵工。金山形似兜鍪，其俗謂兜鍪為「突厥」，遂因以為號焉。"
- ^ ISBN 0-19-517726-6
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- Han Dynastyin the early 3rd century.
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- ^ a b Theobald, Ulrich. "Shatuo Türks 沙陀突厥 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ^ Mote, F.W.: Imperial China: 900–1800, Harvard University Press, 1999
- ^ Song Lian et al., History of Yuan, "Vol. 118" "阿剌兀思剔吉忽里，汪古部人，係出沙陀雁門之後。" Alawusi Tijihuli, a man of the Ongud tribe, descendant(s) of the Wild Goose Pass's Shatuo
- ^ a b Paulillo, Mauricio. "White Tatars: The Problem of the Öngũt conversion to Jingjiao and the Uighur Connection" in From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia (orientalia - patristica - oecumenica) Ed. Tang, Winkler. (2013) pp. 237-252
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- ^ Melnyk 2022, p. 318"According to Pritsak, the Pecheneg ruling elite (i.e the Kangar tribes) were Iranian speakers."
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- ^ * A. C. S. Peacock, Great Seljuk Empire, (Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 1–378.
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- ^ Göbl 1967, 254; Vondrovec tyre 254
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- Kök-Türk period describe the turcophone Kirgiz with green eyes and red hair. They must have been in majority Europeoids although intermarriages with the Chinese had begun long ago. The Kök-Türk kagan Mu-kan was also depicted with blue eyes and an elongated ruddy face. Probably as a result of the repeated marriages, the members of the Kök-Türk dynasty (pl. XLVII/a), and particularly Köl Tigin, had frankly Mongoloid features. Perhaps in the hope of finding an occasion to claim rulership over China, or because the high birth of the mother warranted seniority, the Inner Asian monarchs sought alliances165 with dynasties reigning in China."
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Even then, the term 'Turk' was still applied in a loose sense, and we find for instance the Magyars (Majghari) or the Rus described as Turks by the same Muslim writers.70 And this is a fact which cannot be explained by assuming that these were people who were under the rule of the Turks, or, in other words, by assuming that the word is always used as a political-territorial ethnonym.71 Tibetans are also frequently confused with Turks, for instance by Al-Biruni, who speaks of 'Turks from Tibet' and 'Turks of Tibetan origin'
- ISBN 978-90-04-14096-7.: "One of the issues that most occupied the travelers was the physiognomy of the Turks.120 Both mentally and physically, Turks appeared to the Arab authors as very different from themselves.121 The shape of these "broad faced people with small eyes" and their physique impressed the travelers crossing the Eurasian lands." "According to this explanation: Because of the Turks' distance from the course of the sun and from the sun's rising and descending, the snow in their lands is abundant and coldness and humidity dominate it. This caused the bodies of this land's inhabitants to become mellow and their epidermis thick.124 Their sleek hair is spare and its colour is pale with an inclination to red. Due to the cold weather of their surroundings, coldness dominates their temper. In effect, the cold climate breeds abundant flesh. The arctic temperature compresses the heat and makes it visible. This gives them their pink skin. It is noticeable among the people who have bulky bodies and pale colour. Whilst a chilly wind hits them, their faces, lips, fingers and legs became red. This is because while they were warm their blood expanded, and then the cold temperature caused it to amass."
- ^ Lee & Kuang (2017) "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples", Inner Asia 19. p. 207-208 of 197–239 Quote: "The Chinese histories also depict the Turkic-speaking peoples as typically possessing East/Inner Asian physiognomy, as well as occasionally having West Eurasian physiognomy. DNA studies corroborate such characterisation of the Turkic peoples."
- ^ Babayar, Gaybulla (2013). "The Imperial Titles on the Coins of the Western Turkic Qaghanate". History of Central Asia in Modern Medieval Studies. Tashkent: Yangi Nashr: 331.
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- ^ Brook 2018, p. 3.
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- ^ Xin Tangshu, "vol. 217b" txt: "又有駁馬者，或曰弊剌，曰遏羅支，[...] 人貌多似結骨，而語不相通。" tr: "There are also Piebald-Horse folk, also called either Bila or Eluozhi [...]. [Those] peoples' faces much resemble Kyrghyzes', yet the languages are not mutually intelligible."
- ^ Xin Tangshu, "vol. 217b", txt: "黠戛斯，古堅昆國也。[...] 或曰居勿，曰結骨。 [...] 人皆長大，赤髮、皙面、綠瞳"
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- Tekin, Talat (1993). Irk bitig (the book of omens) (PDF). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-03426-5.
- Uchiyama, Junzo; et al. (21 May 2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. PMID 37588381..
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- Yarshater, Ehsan (2001). Encyclopedia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-933273-56-6.
- Yunusbayev, Bayazit; et al. (21 April 2015). "The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia". PMID 25898006.
Further reading
- Amanjolov A.S., "History of the Ancient Turkic Script", Almaty, "Mektep", 2003, ISBN 9965-16-204-2
- Baichorov S.Ya., "Ancient Turkic runic monuments of the Europe", Stavropol, 1989 (in Russian).
- Baskakov, N.A. 1962, 1969. Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages. Moscow (in Russian).
- ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.
- Boeschoten, Hendrik & Lars Johanson. 2006. Turkic languages in contact. Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-05212-0.
- Chavannes, Édouard(1900): Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. Paris, Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Cheng Wen Publishing Co. 1969.
- Clausen, Gerard. 1972. An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Deny, Jean et al. 1959–1964. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Eliot, Charles Norton Edgcumbe (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). pp. 468–473.
- Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517726-6(pbk.)
- Golden, Peter B. An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East (Otto Harrassowitz (Wiesbaden) 1992) ISBN 3-447-03274-X
- Peter B. Golden (1992). An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East. O. Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-03274-2.
- Heywood, Colin. The Turks (The Peoples of Europe) (Blackwell 2005), ISBN 978-0-631-15897-4.
- Hostler, Charles Warren. The Turks of Central Asia (Greenwood Press, November 1993), ISBN 0-275-93931-6.
- Ishjatms N., "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia", in the "History of civilizations of Central Asia", Volume 2, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, ISBN 92-3-102846-4.
- Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. The Turkic languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08200-5.
- Johanson, Lars. 1998. "The history of Turkic." In: Johanson & Csató, pp. 81–125. Classification of Turkic languages Archived 8 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- Johanson, Lars. 1998. "Turkic languages." In: Encyclopædia Britannica. CD 98. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 5 September. 2007. Turkic languages: Linguistic history.
- Karatay, Osman. The Genesis of the Turks: An Ethno-Linguistic Inquiry into the Prehistory of Central Eurasia. United Kingdom, Cambridge Scholars Publishing., 2022.
- Kyzlasov I.L., "Runic Scripts of Eurasian Steppes", Moscow, Eastern Literature, 1994, ISBN 5-02-017741-5.
- Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. (2006). Les Saces: Les « Scythes » d'Asie, VIIIe siècle apr. J.-C. Editions Errance, Paris. ISBN 2-87772-337-2.
- Malov S.E., "Monuments of the ancient Turkic inscriptions. Texts and research", M.-L., 1951 (in Russian).
- Mukhamadiev A., "Turanian Writing", in "Problems Of Lingo-Ethno-History Of The Tatar People", Kazan, 1995 (Азгар Мухамадиев, "Туранская Письменность", "Проблемы лингвоэтноистории татарского народа", Казань, 1995) (in Russian).
- Menges, K. H. 1968. The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Öztopçu, Kurtuluş. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14198-2
- Alpamysh, H.B. Paksoy: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule (Hartford: AACAR, 1989)
- H. B. Paksoy (1989). Alpamysh: Central Asian Identity Under Russian Rule. AACAR. ISBN 978-0-9621379-9-0.
- Samoilovich, A. N. 1922. Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages. Petrograd.
- Schönig, Claus. 1997–1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III." Turkic Languages 1:1.117–133, 1:2.262–277, 2:1.130–151.
- Vasiliev D.D. Graphical fund of Turkic runiform writing monuments in Asian areal. М., 198 (in Russian).
- Vasiliev D.D. Corpus of Turkic runiform monuments in the basin of Enisei. М., 1983 (in Russian).
- Voegelin, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977. Classification and index of the World's languages. New York: Elsevier.
External links
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