Severe weather
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Severe weather is one type of extreme weather, which includes unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather and is by definition rare for that location or time of the year.[5] Due to the effects of climate change, the frequency and intensity of some of the extreme weather events are increasing, for example, heatwaves and droughts.[6]: 9
Terminology
Meteorologists have generally defined severe weather as any aspect of the weather that poses risks to life or property or requires the intervention of authorities. A narrower definition of severe weather is any weather phenomenon relating to severe thunderstorms.[4][7]
According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), severe weather can be categorized into two groups: general severe weather and localized severe weather.[1] Nor'easters, European wind storms, and the phenomena that accompany them form over wide geographic areas. These occurrences are classified as general severe weather.[1] Downbursts and tornadoes are more localized and therefore have a more limited geographic effect. These forms of weather are classified as localized severe weather.[1]
The term severe weather is technically not the same phenomenon as extreme weather. Extreme weather describes unusual weather events that are at the extremes of the historical distribution for a given area.[8]
Causes
Organized severe weather occurs under the same conditions that generate ordinary thunderstorms: atmospheric moisture, lift (often from thermals), and instability.[9] A wide variety of conditions cause severe weather. Several factors can convert thunderstorms into severe weather. For example, a pool of cold air aloft may aid in the development of large hail from an otherwise innocuous-appearing thunderstorm. However, the most severe hail and tornadoes are produced by supercell thunderstorms, and the worst downbursts and derechos (straight-line winds) are produced by bow echoes. Both of these types of storms tend to form in environments with high wind shear.[9]
Floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and thunderstorms are considered to be the most destructive weather-related
Categories
Severe thunderstorms can be assessed in three different categories. These are "approaching severe", "severe", and "significantly severe".
Approaching severe is defined as hail between 1⁄2 to 1 inch (13 to 25 mm) diameter or winds between 50 and 58 mph (50 knots, 80–93 km/h). In the United States, such storms will usually warrant a
Severe is defined as hail 1 to 2 inches (25 to 51 mm) diameter, winds 58 to 75 miles per hour (93 to 121 km/h), or a tornado.[11]
Significant severe is defined as hail 2 inches (51 mm) in diameter or larger, winds 75 mph (65 knots, 120 km/h) or more, or a tornado of strength EF2 or stronger.[1][12]
Both severe and significant severe events warrant a
A severe weather outbreak is typically considered to be when ten or more tornadoes, some of which will likely be long-tracked and violent, and many large hail or damaging wind reports occur within one or more consecutive days. Severity is also dependent on the size of the geographic area affected, whether it covers hundreds or thousands of square kilometers.[14]
High winds
High winds are known to cause damage, depending upon their strength.
Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) may lead to power outages when tree branches fall and disrupt power lines.[15] Some species of trees are more vulnerable to winds. Trees with shallow roots are more prone to uproot, and brittle trees such as eucalyptus, sea hibiscus, and avocado are more prone to branch damage.[16]
Wind gusts may cause poorly designed suspension bridges to sway. When wind gusts harmonize with the frequency of the swaying bridge, the bridge may fail as occurred with the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940.[17]
Hurricane-force winds, caused by individual thunderstorms, thunderstorm complexes, derechos, tornadoes, extratropical cyclones, or tropical cyclones can destroy mobile homes and structurally damage buildings with foundations. Winds of this strength due to downslope winds off terrain have been known to shatter windows and sandblast paint from cars.[18]
Once winds exceed 135 knots (250 km/h) within strong tropical cyclones and tornadoes, homes completely collapse, and significant damage is done to larger buildings. Total destruction to man-made structures occurs when winds reach 175 knots (324 km/h). The Saffir–Simpson scale for cyclones and Enhanced Fujita scale (TORRO scale in Europe) for tornadoes were developed to help estimate wind speed from the damage they cause.[19][20]
Tornado
A dangerous rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and the base of a cumulonimbus cloud (thundercloud) or a cumulus cloud, in rare cases. Tornadoes come in many sizes but typically form a visible condensation funnel whose narrowest end reaches the earth and surrounded by a cloud of debris and dust.[21]
Tornadoes' wind speeds generally average between 40 miles per hour (64 km/h) and 110 miles per hour (180 km/h). They are approximately 250 feet (76 m) across and travel a few miles (kilometers) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds in excess of 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), may stretch more than two miles (3.2 km) across, and maintain contact with the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).
Tornadoes, despite being one of the most destructive weather phenomena, are generally short-lived. A long-lived tornado generally lasts no more than an hour, but some have been known to last for 2 hours or longer (for example, the
Waterspout
Waterspouts are generally defined as tornadoes or non-supercell tornadoes that develop over bodies of water.[26]
Waterspouts typically do not do much damage because they occur over open water, but they are capable of traveling over land. Vegetation, weakly constructed buildings, and other infrastructure may be damaged or destroyed by waterspouts. Waterspouts do not generally last long over terrestrial environments as the friction produced easily dissipates the winds. Strong horizontal winds will cause waterspouts to dissipate as they disturb the vortex.[27] While not generally as dangerous as "classic" tornadoes, waterspouts can overturn boats, and they can cause severe damage to larger ships.[13]
Downburst and derecho
Downbursts are created within thunderstorms by significantly rain-cooled air, which, upon reaching ground level, spreads out in all directions and produce strong winds. Unlike winds in a
Downbursts create vertical
Squall line
A squall line is an elongated line of
Squall lines often cause severe straight-line wind damage, and most non-tornadic wind damage is caused from squall lines.[41] Although the primary danger from squall lines is straight-line winds, some squall lines also contain weak tornadoes.[41]
Tropical cyclone
Very high winds can be caused by mature tropical cyclones (called hurricanes in the United States and Canada and typhoons in eastern Asia). A tropical cyclone's heavy
Strong extratropical cyclones
Severe local windstorms in Europe that develop from winds off the North Atlantic. These windstorms are commonly associated with the destructive extratropical cyclones and their low pressure frontal systems.[43] European windstorms occur mainly in the seasons of autumn and winter.[44] Severe European windstorms are often characterized by heavy precipitation as well.
A
Dust storm
A dust storm is an unusual form of windstorm that is characterized by the existence of large quantities of sand and dust particles carried by the wind.[46] Dust storms frequently develop during periods of droughts, or over arid and semi-arid regions.
Dust storms have numerous hazards and are capable of causing deaths. Visibility may be reduced dramatically, so risks of vehicle and aircraft crashes are possible. Additionally, the particulates may reduce oxygen intake by the lungs,[47] potentially resulting in suffocation. Damage can also be inflicted upon the eyes due to abrasion.[48]
Dust storms can many issues for agricultural industries as well. Soil erosion is one of the most common hazards and decreases arable lands. Dust and sand particles can cause severe weathering of buildings and rock formations. Nearby bodies of water may be polluted by settling dust and sand, killing aquatic organisms. Decrease in exposure to sunlight can affect plant growth, as well as decrease in infrared radiation may cause decreased temperatures.
Wildfires
The most common cause of wildfires varies throughout the world. In the United States, Canada, and Northwest China, lightning is the major source of ignition. In other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor. For instance, in Mexico, Central America, South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Fiji, and New Zealand, wildfires can be attributed to human activities such as animal husbandry, agriculture, and land-conversion burning. Human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires in China and in the Mediterranean Basin. In Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced to both lightning strikes and human activities such as machinery sparks and cast-away cigarette butts."[49] Wildfires have a rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense, uninterrupted fuels.[50] They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometers per hour (6.7 mph) in forests and 22 kilometers per hour (14 mph) in grasslands.[51] Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing.[52]
Wildfires may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through the air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks.[53][54] Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels that surround a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands.[55] Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires, spot fires are known to occur as far as 10 kilometers (6 mi) from the fire front.[56] Since the mid-1980s, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season in the Western United States.[57]
Hail
Any form of thunderstorm that produces precipitating
Hailstones can cause serious damage, notably to
Heavy rainfall and flooding
Heavy rainfall can lead to a number of hazards, most of which are floods or hazards resulting from floods. Flooding is the inundation of areas that are not normally under water. It is typically divided into three classes: River flooding, which relates to rivers rising outside their normal banks; flash flooding, which is the process where a landscape, often in urban and arid environments, is subjected to rapid floods;[64] and coastal flooding, which can be caused by strong winds from tropical or non-tropical cyclones.[65] Meteorologically, excessive rains occur within a plume of air with high amounts of moisture (also known as an atmospheric river), which is directed around an upper level cold-core low or a tropical cyclone.[66]
Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and are usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in densely populated urban environments, where less plants and bodies of water are presented to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within experiencing areas can also be displaced.
Monsoons
Seasonal wind shifts lead to long-lasting
Government organizations help their residents deal with wet-season floods though floodplain mapping and information on erosion control. Mapping is conducted to help determine areas that may be more prone to flooding.[73] Erosion control instructions are provided through outreach over the telephone or the internet.[74]
Flood waters that occur during monsoon seasons can often host numerous
Tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain or squalls. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air. Tropical cyclones may produce torrential rain, high waves, and damaging storm surge.[78] Heavy rains produce significant inland flooding. Storm surges may produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the coastline.
Although
Severe winter weather
Heavy snowfall
When extratropical cyclones deposit heavy, wet snow with a snow-water equivalent (SWE) ratio of between 6:1 and 12:1 and a weight in excess of 10 pounds per square foot (~50 kg/m2)[82] piles onto trees or electricity lines, significant damage may occur on a scale usually associated with strong tropical cyclones.[83] An avalanche can occur with a sudden thermal or mechanical impact on snow that has accumulated on a mountain, which causes the snow to rush downhill suddenly. Preceding an avalanche is a phenomenon known as an avalanche wind caused by the approaching avalanche itself, which adds to its destructive potential.[84] Large amounts of snow that accumulate on top of man-made structures can lead to structural failure.[85] During snowmelt, acidic precipitation that previously fell in the snow pack is released and harms marine life.[86]
Lake-effect snow is produced in the winter in the shape of one or more elongated bands. This occurs when cold winds move across long expanses of warmer lake water, providing energy and picking up water vapor, which then freezes and is deposited on the lee shores.[87] For more information on this effect see the main article.
Conditions within blizzards often include large quantities of blowing snow and strong winds that may significantly reduce visibility. Reduced viability of personnel on foot may result in extended exposure to the blizzard and increase the chance of becoming lost. The strong winds associated with blizzards create wind chill that can result in frostbites and hypothermia. The strong winds present in blizzards are capable of damaging plants and may cause power outages, frozen pipes, and cut off fuel lines.[88]
Ice storm
Ice storms are also known as a Silver storm, referring to the color of the freezing precipitation.
Heat and drought
Drought
Another form of severe weather is drought, which is a prolonged period of persistently dry weather (that is, absence of precipitation).
Heat waves
Although official definitions vary, a heat wave is generally defined as a prolonged period with excessive heat.[95] Although heat waves do not cause as much economic damage as other types of severe weather, they are extremely dangerous to humans and animals: according to the United States National Weather Service, the average total number of heat-related fatalities each year is higher than the combined total fatalities for floods, tornadoes, lightning strikes, and hurricanes.[96] In Australia, heat waves cause more fatalities than any other type of severe weather.[95] The dry conditions that may accompany heat waves can also severely affect plant life as the plants lose moisture and die.[97] Heat waves are often more severe when combined with high humidity.[96]
See also
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External links
- Design Discussion Primer – Severe Storms residential building design strategies.
- Clarke, Ben; Otto, Friederike (2022). Reporting extreme weather and climate change: A guide for journalists (PDF) (Report). World Weather Attribution.