Avocado
Avocado | |
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Avocado fruit and foliage, Réunion island | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Magnoliids |
Order: | Laurales |
Family: | Lauraceae |
Genus: | Persea |
Species: | P. americana
|
Binomial name | |
Persea americana | |
Synonyms[2] | |
synonymy
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The avocado, alligator pear or avocado pear (Persea americana) is a medium-sized, evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native to the Americas and was first domesticated in Mesoamerica more than 5,000 years ago. Then as now it was prized for its large and unusually oily fruit.[3] The tree likely originated in the highlands bridging south-central Mexico and Guatemala.[4][5][6] Its fruit, sometimes also referred to as an alligator pear or avocado pear, is botanically a large berry containing a single large seed.[7] Sequencing of its genome showed that the evolution of avocados was shaped by polyploidy events and that commercial varieties have an hybrid origin.[8] Avocado trees are partly self-pollinating, and are often propagated through grafting to maintain consistent fruit output.[9] Avocados are presently cultivated in the tropical and Mediterranean climates of many countries.[4] Mexico is the world's leading producer of avocados as of 2020, supplying nearly 30% of the global harvest in that year.[10]
The fruit of domestic varieties have smooth, buttery, golden-green flesh when ripe. Depending on the cultivar, avocados have green, brown, purplish, or black skin, and may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. For commercial purposes the fruits are picked while unripe and ripened after harvesting. The nutrient density and extremely high fat content of avocado flesh are useful to a variety of cuisines and are often eaten to enrich vegetarian diets.[11]
In major production regions like
Description
Persea americana is a tree that grows to 9–20 m (30–66 ft) with a trunk diameter between 0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft). The leaves are 8–25 cm (3–10 in) long and alternately arranged.[19][20]
Flower
Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous 5–10 mm (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) wide. They have no petals but instead 2 whorls of 3 pale-green or greenish-yellow downy perianth lobes, each blossom has 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar glands.[19][4]
Fruit
The avocado fruit is a
The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner
Taxonomy
Persea americana is regarded as an evolutionary anachronism, having likely coevolved dispersal of its large seed by now-extinct megafauna in South America, notably giant ground sloths and the gomphothere genus of the elephant lineage.[25][26][27] Following extinction of these original seed dispersers, humans migrating into the region are thought to have become primary long-distance dispersers, eventuating in domestication of the species.[26][28]
In 1982, evolutionary biologist
The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín Fernández de Enciso (c. 1470 – 1528) in 1519 in his book, Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo.[32][33] The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias in 1526.[34] The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane, who coined the term,[34] in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants.
Etymology
The word avocado comes from the Spanish aguacate, which derives from the Nahuatl (Mexican) word āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ],[35] which goes back to the proto-Aztecan *pa:wa.[36] In Molina's Nahuatl dictionary "auacatl" is given also as the translation for compañón "testicle",[37] and this has been taken up in popular culture where a frequent claim is that testicle was the word's original meaning. This is not the case, as the original meaning can be reconstructed rather as "avocado" – rather the word seems to have been used in Nahuatl as a euphemism for "testicle".[38][39][40]
The modern English name comes from a rendering of the Spanish aguacate as avogato. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as avogato pear, later avocado pear (due to its shape), a term sometimes corrupted to alligator pear.[41][42][4]
Regional names
In Central American, Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, and Spain
In the United Kingdom the term avocado pear, applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s, is sometimes used.[46]
Originating as a
It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India[48] and Hong Kong.[49]
Cultivation
History
Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the
The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.
The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908.[52] In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.[52]
Before 1915, the avocado was commonly referred to in California as ahuacate and in Florida as alligator pear. In 1915, the California Avocado Association introduced the then-innovative term avocado to refer to the plant.[52]
Requirements
As a
According to information published by the Water Footprint Network, it takes an average of approximately 70 litres (18 US gallons; 15 imperial gallons) of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado (283 L/kg [33.9 US gal/lb; 28.2 imp gal/lb]). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about 320 L (85 US gal; 70 imp gal) of applied water are needed to grow one avocado (1,280 L/kg [153 US gal/lb; 128 imp gal/lb]).[56]
Increasing demand and production of avocados may cause water shortages in some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state of Michoacán.[12][57] Avocados may also cause environmental and socioeconomic impacts in major production areas, illegal deforestation, and water disputes.[12][57] Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.[57]
Harvest and postharvest
Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.[58] Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.
Like the banana, the avocado is a climacteric fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 3.3 to 5.6 °C (37.9 to 42.1 °F) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.[59] The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of Escondido, California, in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase.[60] In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.
Breeding
The species is only partially able to
The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
- A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
- B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'[61][62]
Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.[63] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[64]
Propagation and rootstocks
Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.
Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.[67][68]
As a houseplant
The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorative houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.[69]
Pests and diseases
Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal, and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.[70] The pyriform scale insect (Protopulvinaria pyriformis) is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida,[71] and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.[72]
Cultivation by location
Cultivation in Mexico
Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.[73] In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was 188,723 hectares (466,340 acres), and the harvest was 2.03 million tonnes in 2017.[10] The states that produce the most are México, Morelos, Nayarit, Puebla, and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of drug cartels that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexican pesos per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.[74] It is such a problem that the phrase blood guacamole has been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.[75]
Cultivation in California
The avocado was introduced from Mexico to California in the 19th century, and has become a successful cash crop. About 24,000 hectares (59,000 acres) – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located in Southern California,[75] with 60% in San Diego County.[citation needed]
Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California.[76] Fallbrook, California, claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of Uruapan in Mexico[77]), and both it and Carpinteria, California, host annual avocado festivals.
The California Avocado Commission and the California Avocado Society are the two major grower organizations and Calavo Growers is a major distributor.
Cultivation in Peru
'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.[78] Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the European Union and the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States.[79] The country's location near the equator and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.
'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.
Cultivation in Chile
Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand. New York magazine reported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country's groundwater and rivers faster than they can replenish themselves."[75] 88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. No import tariffs are imposed on Chilean avocados by China, the United States, or the European Union due to free trade agreements.[80][81]
Cultivars
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (May 2022) |
A cultivars
- 'Choquette': A seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.[82]
- 'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' (100–200 g or 3+1⁄2–7 oz), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to −1 °C (30 °F).[83]
- 'Hass': The 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.[33][84] All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass, of La Habra Heights, California.[32][84] Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of root rot and was cut down in September 2002.[33][84][85]
- 'Lula': A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
- 'Maluma': A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
- 'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in Saticoy, California, in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to −1 °C (30 °F) and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.[citation needed]
- 'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to −1 °C (30 °F). Tree size is about 5 by 4 m (16+1⁄2 by 13 ft).[citation needed]
B cultivars
- 'Fuerte': Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported from Atlixco, Mexico in 1911,[86] Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.[87]
- 'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe in portmanteau of Sharpe and Wilson.[88] Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. Sharpe OBE was later awarded a CMG in 1972 for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.[89]
Other cultivars
Other avocado cultivars include 'Spinks'. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among horticulturists) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.[90]
Stoneless avocado
A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.[91] Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.[92] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[93]
Production
Avocado production – 2020 | |
---|---|
Country | Production (millions of tonnes) |
Mexico | 2.39 |
Colombia | 0.88 |
Dominican Republic | 0.68 |
Peru | 0.66 |
Indonesia | 0.61 |
Kenya | 0.32 |
World | 8.06 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[10]
|
In 2020, world production of avocados was 8.1 million
In 2018, the
Market
Seventy-six percent of Mexico's avocado exports go to the United States,
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Mexican avocado farmers restricted harvesting as the overall demand and supply chain slowed due to labor and shipping restrictions.[96][94] Later in 2020, demand in the United States and within Mexico increased at a time when American retail prices continued to rise.[94][97] During 2020 in the United States, month-to-month volume sales of avocados were similar to those of tomatoes at about 250 million pounds (110 million kg) per month.[97] A report issued in mid-2020 forecast that the worldwide market, which was US$13.7 billion in 2018, would recover after the end of the pandemic and rise to US$21.6 billion by 2026.[96]
Toxicity
Allergies
Some people have
Toxicity to animals
Avocado leaves,
Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative,
The leaves of the Guatemalan variety of P. americana are toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.[105]
Uses
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 670 kJ (160 kcal) |
8.53 g | |
Sugars | 0.66 g |
Dietary fiber | 6.7 g |
14.66 g | |
Saturated | 2.13 g |
Monounsaturated | 9.80 g |
Polyunsaturated | 1.82 g |
2 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 11% 1.738 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 28% 1.389 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 15% 0.257 mg |
Folate (B9) | 20% 81 μg |
Vitamin C | 11% 10 mg |
Vitamin E | 14% 2.07 mg |
Vitamin K | 18% 21 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 1% 12 mg |
Iron | 3% 0.55 mg |
Magnesium | 7% 29 mg |
Manganese | 6% 0.142 mg |
Phosphorus | 4% 52 mg |
Potassium | 16% 485 mg |
Sodium | 0% 7 mg |
Zinc | 6% 0.64 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 73.23 g |
Beta-sitosterol | 76 mg |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[106] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[107] |
Raw avocado flesh is 73% water, 15% fat, 9%
Fat composition
Avocados have diverse fats.[109] For a typical one:
- About 75% of an avocado's energy comes from fat, most of which (67% of total fat) is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid (table).[109]
- Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic acid.[109]
- The saturated fat content amounts to 14% of the total fat.[109]
- Typical total fat composition is roughly: 1% ω-3, 14% ω-6, 71% ω-9 (65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14% saturated fat (palmitic acid).[109]
Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.[4]
Research
In 2022, a prospective cohort study following 110,487 people for 30 years found that eating two servings of avocado per week reduced the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by 16–22%.[110] The study involved replacing half a daily serving of saturated fat sources, including margarine, butter, egg, yogurt, cheese, or processed meats, with an equivalent amount of avocado.[110]
Culinary
The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly
A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to
or lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture.[4] It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is common in vegetarian cuisine as a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.
Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. The flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.[112]
It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known as
-
Sliced avocado
-
A guacamole mix (right) used as a dip for tortilla chips (left).
-
Avocado in milk and sugar, a traditional dish from the Philippines where avocados are regarded as a dessert fruit, rather than savory.
-
Indonesian-style avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup
-
Unusual avocado variety from Cebu, Philippines
-
A mocha almond fudge avocado layer cake. Avocado is present within the layers of the cake.
International
In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. They are also commonly added to pozole. In Peru, they are consumed with tequeños as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with parrillas, used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken, hamburgers, and hot dogs; and in slices for celery or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of Caesar salad contains large slices of mature avocado.[citation needed]
Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, or Argentina, where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare. With the exception of the Philippines, a former Spanish colony where avocados are traditionally used in sweet preparations and savory uses are seen as exotic.[113]
In the
In Ethiopia, avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with Vimto and a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called Spris) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. In Kenya and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. In Ghana, they are often eaten alone on sliced bread as a sandwich. In Sri Lanka, their well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed or pureed with milk and kitul treacle (a liquid jaggery made from the sap of the inflorescence of jaggery palms), is a common dessert.[116] In Haiti, they are often consumed with cassava or regular bread for breakfast.
In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced by Sainsbury's under the name 'avocado pear'.[46] Much of the success of avocados in the UK is attributed to a long-running promotional campaign initiated by South African growers in 1995.[117] In Australia and New Zealand, avocados are commonly served on sandwiches, sushi, toast, or with chicken.
Leaves
In addition to the fruit, the leaves of Mexican avocados (Persea americana var. drymifolia) are used in some cuisines as a spice, with a flavor somewhat reminiscent of anise.[118] They are sold both dried and fresh, toasted before use, and either crumbled or used whole, commonly in bean dishes.[119]
See also
Explanatory notes
- ^ Intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one.
References
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- ^ "Persea americana Mill". World Flora Online. The World Flora Online Consortium. 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
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- ^ "What's in a name?". University of California. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
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- ^ Pharao Hansen, Magnus (2021). "Avocado og testikelsovs:et internet meme og en aztekisk etymologi (Avocados and testicle sauce: an internet meme and an aztec etymology" (PDF). Mål og Mæle. 42 (3): 9–12.
- ^ Brooke, Binkowski (9 February 2016). "Does the Word 'Guacamole' Mean 'Testicle Sauce'?". Snopes.
- ^ Magnus Pharao Hansen (10 February 2016). "No Snopes.com, the word guacamole does not come from the Nahuatl word for "ground testicles or avocados"". Nahuatl Studies (Blog).
- ^ "8 Words from Nahuatl, the Language of the Aztecs". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, second edition (1989), articles "avocado", "alligator, n.2"
- ^ "aguacate". Diccionario de la lengua española. Real Academia Española.
- ^ "palta". Diccionario de la lengua española. Real Academia Española.
- ^ "guacamole". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ a b "Twiggy squares up to Sainsbury's in the avocado wars". The Scotsman. 23 May 2009. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
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- ^ Conversation, The (14 May 2017). "What is China's role in the global avocado shortage?". Hong Kong Free Press. Retrieved 31 October 2022.
- ^ a b c d Landon, Amanda J. (2009). "Domestication and Significance of Persea americana, the Avocado, in Mesoamerica". Nebraska Anthropologist. 47.
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Further reading
- Bruce Shaffer; B. Nigel Wolstenhome; Anthony W. Whiley, eds. (2012). The Avocado: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI. ISBN 9781845937010.
External links
- Definitive illustrated list of avocado varieties Archived 9 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- California Avocado Commission
- Avocados beyond Persea americana Archived 7 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine, California Rare Fruit Growers