History of Inuit clothing: Difference between revisions

This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Undo Reverted
Iamnayil (talk | contribs)
13 edits
m I added a final summary, It’s a copy paste of the final sentences of each paragraph as main points.
Tags: Manual revert Reverted Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit
Line 11: Line 11:


Since that time, Inuit groups have made significant efforts to preserve traditional skills and reintroduce them to younger generations in a way that is practical for the modern world. Although full outfits of traditional skin clothing are uncommon overall, they are still seen in the winter and on special occasions. Many Inuit seamstresses today use modern materials to make traditionally-styled garments, leading to the growth of an Inuit-led fashion movement, a subset of [[Indigenous American fashion]]. In light of the growing interaction between Inuit clothing and the [[fashion industry]], Inuit groups have raised concerns about the protection of Inuit heritage from [[cultural appropriation]] and prevention of genericization of cultural garments like the {{lang|iu|amauti}}.
Since that time, Inuit groups have made significant efforts to preserve traditional skills and reintroduce them to younger generations in a way that is practical for the modern world. Although full outfits of traditional skin clothing are uncommon overall, they are still seen in the winter and on special occasions. Many Inuit seamstresses today use modern materials to make traditionally-styled garments, leading to the growth of an Inuit-led fashion movement, a subset of [[Indigenous American fashion]]. In light of the growing interaction between Inuit clothing and the [[fashion industry]], Inuit groups have raised concerns about the protection of Inuit heritage from [[cultural appropriation]] and prevention of genericization of cultural garments like the {{lang|iu|amauti}}.

In conclusion; All evidence indicates that the history of Inuit clothing extends far back into prehistory. voluntary adoptions were often a precursor to the decline or disappearance of traditional styles. There was a near-complete loss of traditional clothing-making skills by the 1990s. Inuit groups have raised concerns about the protection of Inuit heritage from cultural appropriation and prevention of genericization of cultural garments like the amauti.


== Prehistoric development ==
== Prehistoric development ==

Revision as of 16:46, 4 April 2022

A fawn-brown and grey waist-length fur cape, with long sleeves and a hood.
Sealskin woman's parka discovered at Qilakitsoq in 1972, dated to c. 1475.

Archaeological evidence indicates that the history of Inuit clothing extends far back into

Russian Far East) are similar, and evidence in the form of tools and carved figurines indicates that these systems may have originated in Siberia as early as 22,000 BCE, and in northern Canada and Greenland
as early as 2500 BCE. Pieces of garments found at archaeological sites, dated to approximately 1000 to 1600 CE, are very similar to garments from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, which confirms consistency in the construction of Inuit clothing over centuries.

Beginning in the late 1500s, contact with non-Inuit traders and explorers began to have an increasingly large influence on the construction and appearance of Inuit clothing. Imported tools and fabrics became integrated into the traditional clothing system, and premade fabric garments sometimes replaced traditional wear. Adoption of fabric garments was often driven by external pressure to conform to non-Inuit standards of dress, but many Inuit also adopted fabric garments for their own convenience. These voluntary adoptions were often a precursor to the decline or disappearance of traditional styles.

With an increase in

Inuit elders
passing down knowledge to younger generations. Wider availability of manufactured clothing and reduced availability of animal pelts further reduced demand for traditional clothing. The combination of these factors resulted in a near-complete loss of traditional clothing-making skills by the 1990s.

Since that time, Inuit groups have made significant efforts to preserve traditional skills and reintroduce them to younger generations in a way that is practical for the modern world. Although full outfits of traditional skin clothing are uncommon overall, they are still seen in the winter and on special occasions. Many Inuit seamstresses today use modern materials to make traditionally-styled garments, leading to the growth of an Inuit-led fashion movement, a subset of

fashion industry, Inuit groups have raised concerns about the protection of Inuit heritage from cultural appropriation
and prevention of genericization of cultural garments like the amauti.

In conclusion; All evidence indicates that the history of Inuit clothing extends far back into prehistory. voluntary adoptions were often a precursor to the decline or disappearance of traditional styles. There was a near-complete loss of traditional clothing-making skills by the 1990s. Inuit groups have raised concerns about the protection of Inuit heritage from cultural appropriation and prevention of genericization of cultural garments like the amauti.

Prehistoric development

Refer to caption
Left: ivory figurine from the Mal'ta–Buret' culture, interpreted as showing child in coverall fur garment. Right: photo of indigenous Siberian child in coverall garment from the beginning of the twentieth century.

Archaeological

art objects found at archaeological sites.[1]

In what is now

kamiit).[a][4] Some of these Dorset figures exhibit what appear to be high collars rather than hoods, and it is not clear whether they depict figures with hoods down, or if the parkas worn in that era had no hoods at all.[5]

Tools for skin preparation and sewing made from

caribou clothing at coastal sites, just as the later Inuit did.[8] Archaeological evidence of seal processing by the Dorset culture has been found at Philip's Garden in the Port au Choix Archaeological Site in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Radiocarbon dating indicates use of the site spanned approximately eight centuries, from about 50 BCE at the earliest to about 770 CE at the latest.[b][9]

Canadian Arctic
from 900 CE to 1500 CE.

Figurines from the

Thule culture era of approximately 1000 to 1600 CE found at archaeological sites in Nunavut, Canada also display features consistent with skin clothing. One ivory figure from Southampton Island displays chest straps reminiscent of the woman's parka, the amauti. A wooden figurine from Ellesmere Island actually has miniature trousers made of bear skin, a feature which Inuit skin clothing expert Betty Kobayashi Issenman noted was, to her knowledge, completely unique on prehistoric figurines.[10] Thule-era ivory figurines collected in Igloolik in 1939 show the large hoods characteristic of the amauti, as well as the rounded tails of women's parkas.[11]

Occasionally, scraps of frozen skin garments or even whole garments are found at archaeological sites. It can be difficult to determine the era of origin owing to the delicacy of these items. Some are believed to come from the Dorset culture era, but the majority are believed to be from the Thule culture era of approximately 1000 to 1600 CE.[12][13] Although style elements like hood height and flap size have changed, structural elements like patterns, seam positions, and stitching of these remnants and outfits are very similar to garments from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, which confirms significant consistency in construction of Inuit clothing over centuries.[14] For example, one Dorset-era boot sole from Kimmirut (formerly Lake Harbour), Nunavut, dated to 200 CE, is constructed with an identical style to modern boots.[13]

Thule-era garments are similarly consistent with later items, which suggests that the Inuit skin clothing system directly evolved from the Thule system.

Utqiaġvik, Alaska from 1981 to 1983 uncovered the earliest known samples of caribou and polar bear skin clothing of the Kakligmiut group of Iñupiat, dated to approximately 1510–1826.[18] The construction of these garments indicates that Kakligmiut garments underwent little change between approximately 1500–1850.[19][20]

As a result of socialization and trade, Inuit groups throughout their history incorporated clothing designs and styles between themselves, as well as from other Indigenous Arctic peoples such as the

trade fairs to exchange materials and finished goods; the trade network that supported these fairs extended across some 3,000 km (1,900 mi) of Arctic territory.[23]

European contact

Refer to caption
1567 broadsheet depicting unknown Inuit woman and child, anonymous engraver

Due to a lack of records, it is difficult to pin down the earliest point of contact between Europeans and the Inuit. The Norse had colonies in Greenland from 986 to around 1410, and the Thule began migrating there from North America as early as 800; contact between the groups is believed to have occurred after 1150.[24][25] Historical records and archaeology indicate that the groups traded as well as fought, and that the Norse did not appear to adopt garments or hunting techniques from the Inuit, who they called skrælings.[26]

Europeans had little contact with the Inuit in the following centuries. Occasionally, sailors would kidnap Inuit from what is now Labrador and bring them to Europe to be exhibited and studied. The Europeans conducting these exhibitions sometimes produced images and written records of their captives, particularly their clothing. The earliest known European depictions of living Inuit were advertising broadsides printed in Germany in 1567, which depict an anonymous Inuit woman and her child who had been kidnapped from Labrador in 1566.[27]

The first real expansion of contact with the Inuit was prompted by the voyages of Martin Frobisher, who from 1576 to 1578 made several attempts to seek the Northwest Passage in the North American Arctic, necessitating contact with the Inuit. Subsequently, hundreds of European ships arrived to hunt seals and whales, trade with the Inuit, and continue the search for the Northwest Passage.[28] Europeans continued to document the details of Inuit clothing during this time, producing the first detailed visual records of Inuit garments. The clothing styles they depict are largely consistent throughout the centuries. For example, Issenman notes that the 1567 broadsides are consistent with a 1654 painting depicting Kalaallit Inuit in traditional skin clothing.[27] In turn, the Kalaallit clothing in that image is similar to that found with the bodies at Qilakitsoq.[29]

trade goods like steel needles and fabric as well as pre-made European garments.[31] While imported garments never fully replaced the traditional clothing complex of the Inuit, they did gain a significant degree of traction in many areas.[32] Figures carved by Inuit following contact include details that indicate the wide adoption of fabric clothing.[4] Often, adoption of outside garments was the result of the influence of Christian missionaries imposing a religious taboo on nudity where none existed before. Women's clothing was seen as particularly inappropriate, as the cut of certain garments could expose their trousers or even their bare thighs, so they were often pressured into wearing long skirts or dresses to conceal their legs.[33][34][35]

International trade, particularly in the form of the

whaling ships.[31] The whaling season extended through the fall until November, overlapping the traditional hunting season for caribou. As a result, many men who worked on whalers were unable to secure enough caribou skins to make appropriate winter clothing, which in turn limited their ability to hunt in the winter, sometimes leading to the starvation of their families.[38]

Purposeful adoption of foreign garments

Refer to caption
Group of Inuit in Greenland wearing cloth garments, c. 1888–1889.

Although much of the drive towards adoption of foreign garments came from external pressure, many Inuit also adopted foreign materials and garments on their own initiative, trading or purchasing for ready-made fabric and clothing. In Canada, these items mostly came from the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), and in Greenland, from the Royal Greenland Trading Department (RGTD).[39][40][41] Men in particular embraced ready-made cloth garments more readily than women, as suitable foreign equivalents were available for most men's clothing.[42] In Greenland, many Inuit men readily adopted lopapeysa, traditional Icelandic sweaters.[43] Men from the Nunavimiut or Ungava Inuit group from Ungava Bay adopted crocheted woolen hats for beneath their hoods.[44] Most Inuit men working on whaling ships across the Arctic adopted cloth garments completely during the summer, generally retaining only their waterproof sealskin kamiit.[45][32]

Cross-cultural adoption of clothing was not always one-sided. European whalers sometimes adopted Inuit garments for Arctic travel, occasionally even going so far as to hire entire families of Inuit to travel with them and sew skin clothing.

Fifth Thule Expedition (1922–1924) did the same.[49]

Refer to caption
Captain Otto Nahmens wearing fur clothing in the Inuit style at Collinson Point, Alaska, 1914

While Inuit men easily adopted outside clothing, the women's amauti, specifically tailored to its function as a mother's garment, had no European ready-made equivalent. Instead, Inuit women used purchased cloth to create garments that suited their needs.

duffel cloth or fur and could be worn on their own, especially during summer.[54] These garments were valued by women as they were simple to make compared to the intensive process of making skin clothing. Their exotic materials were considered a sign of wealth and status.[32][50]

Voluntary adoptions of outside clothing styles were a precursor to the decline or disappearance of traditional styles in many areas. Inuit from disparate groups and tribes often mixed at camps and trading posts set up by European traders, trading their techniques and styles, which muted local differences in styles of clothing.[55][56] In the 1880s, the establishment of an RGTD trading post on the east coast of Greenland greatly increased the availability of foreign garments, which led to the simplification and decline of traditional Inuit skin garments in the area.[57] In 1914, the arrival of the Canadian Arctic Expedition in the territory of the previously-isolated Copper Inuit prompted the virtual disappearance of the unique Copper Inuit clothing style, which by 1930 was almost entirely replaced by a combination of styles imported by newly immigrated Inuvialuit and European-Canadian clothing, particularly the Mother Hubbard parka.[58] Although the Mother Hubbard only arrived there in the late 19th century, it largely eclipsed historical styles of clothing to the point where it is now seen as the traditional women's garment in those areas.[58][59]

Decline since the nineteenth century

Fifth Thule Expedition
, 1921–24.

The production of traditional skin garments for everyday use has declined in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries as a result of loss of skills combined with shrinking demand. Lifestyle change as a result of outside influence was a significant factor in the decline of skin clothing. This peaked in the 19th and 20th centuries when the presence of non-Inuit missionaries, researchers, explorers, and government officials significantly increased in Inuit communities.[60]

Few modern Inuit maintain the nomadic hunting-trapping lifestyle of their ancestors, instead spending much of their time indoors in heated buildings.[61] Many Inuit in Northern Canada work outdoor industrial jobs for which fur clothing, particularly kamiit, would be impractical.[62] Purchasing manufactured clothing saves time and energy compared to the intensive workload involved in making traditional skin clothing, and it can be easier to maintain.[63]

The introduction of the Canadian Indian residential school system to northern Canada, beginning with the establishment of Christian mission schools in the 1860s, was extremely destructive to the ongoing cycle of elders passing down knowledge to younger generations through informal means.[64][65] Children who were sent to residential schools or stayed at hostels to attend school outside their communities were often separated from their families for years, in an environment that made little to no attempt to include their language, culture, or traditional skills.[66] Children who lived at home and attended day schools were at school for long hours most days, leaving little time for families to teach them traditional clothing-making and survival skills.[67] Until the 1980s, most northern day schools did not include material on Inuit culture, compounding the cultural loss.[68][69] The time available for traditional skills was further reduced in areas of significant Christian influence, as Sundays were seen as a day of rest on which to attend church services, not to work.[70] Lacking the time and inclination to practice, many younger people lost interest in creating traditional clothing.[71]

Friends of Animals anti-sealing protest in Canada, 2009

The availability of pelts also impacted the production of skin garments. In the early 20th century,

Caribou Inuit.[73] Many areas today have restrictions on hunting that impacts the availability of pelts. Greenland, for example, requires a hunting license, limits the number of animals that can be hunted, and sets hunting seasons.[74]

From the 1960s to the 1980s, strong opposition to

Greenpeace Canada campaign, led to significant restrictions on the import of sealskin goods in the United States (1972) and the European Economic Community (1983).[c][65][75] These restrictions crashed the export market for seal pelts and caused a corresponding drop in hunting as a primary occupation, reducing the availability of pelts for northern seamstresses and increasing poverty and suicide rates in Nunavut.[75][76] Greenpeace Canada apologized to Inuit in 1985 for the knock-on effects of the campaign. The European Union ban on seal products was reaffirmed in 2009.[77] In 2015, exemptions were made for certified indigenous-hunted products, but a 2020 report described this exemption as economically ineffective.[78][79] The sealskin ban has never been repealed or loosened in the United States.[80] Many Inuit have criticized efforts to ban seal hunting and sealskin as short-sighted and culturally ignorant.[65][81]

The combination of these factors resulted in less demand for elders to create skin garments, which made it less likely that they would pass on their skills.[68] By the mid-1990s, the skills necessary to make Inuit skin clothing were in danger of being completely lost.[82][83] The decline in the use of traditional clothing coincided with an uptick in artistic depictions of traditional clothing in Inuit art, which has been interpreted as a reaction to a feeling of cultural loss.[84]

Modern revitalization efforts

Two Inuit women in clothing covered with detailed beadwork and colorful fabric designs. They have fur ruffs on the hoods of their parkas, cloth skirts beneath their parkas, and fur boots.
Inuit throat singers in 1999 wearing modern-made clothing in the traditional pattern, incorporating fabric, seed bead designs, and animal fur

Since the 1990s, Inuit groups have made significant efforts to preserve traditional skills and reintroduce them to younger generations in a way that is practical for the modern world. Many educational barriers to traditional knowledge have come down. By the 1990s, both the residential schools and the hostel system in the Yukon and the Northwest Territories had been abolished entirely.[d][85] In northern Canada, many schools at all stages of education have now introduced courses which teach traditional skills and cultural material.[86] Outside of the formal education system, cultural literacy programs such as Miqqut, Somebody's Daughter, Reclaiming our Sinew, and Traditional Skills Workshop, spearheaded by organizations like Pauktuutit (Inuit Women of Canada) and Ilitaqsiniq (Nunavut Literacy Council), have been successful in reintroducing modern Inuit to traditional clothing-making skills.[87][88] Many museums now cooperate with Inuit communities in knowledge-sharing and training.[15]

Modern-day techniques ease the time and effort needed for production, making the work more attractive.

Serger machines make stitching more consistent and less time-consuming.[92] Many women create follow traditional patterns to make traditionally-styled garments from non-traditional materials like cloth, combining old and new techniques.[93][94] The fabric-based atikłuk and the Mother Hubbard parka remain popular and fashionable in Alaska and Northern Canada, respectively, and mothers from all occupations still make use of the amauti.[95][96]

In the present day, many Inuit wear a combination of traditional skin garments, garments which use traditional patterns with imported materials, and mass-produced imported clothing, depending on the season and weather, availability, and the desire to be stylish.[97] The fabric-based atikłuk and the Mother Hubbard parka remain popular and fashionable in Alaska and Northern Canada, respectively.[95] Mothers from all occupations still make use of the amauti, which may be worn over fabric leggings or jeans.[96][98] Both handmade and imported garments may feature logos and images from traditional or contemporary Inuit culture, such as Inuit organizations, sports teams, musical groups, or common northern foodstuffs.[56][99][100]

Refer to caption
T-shirt from Greenland reading "INUIT" in stylized text, 2003

Store-bought garments are often repurposed or adjusted—seamstresses may add fur ruffs to the hoods of store-bought winter jackets, and boot tops made of skin may be sewn to mass-produced rubber boot bottoms to create a boot that combines the warmth of skin clothing with the waterproofing and grip of artificial materials.[101][102] Traditional patterns may be revised to account for modern needs: amauti are sometimes made with shorter tails for comfort while driving.[56]

Although it is uncommon today for Inuit to wear complete outfits of traditional skin clothing, fur boots, coats and mittens are still popular in many Arctic places. Skin clothing is preferred for winter wear, especially for Inuit who make their living outdoors in traditional occupations such as hunting and trapping, or modern work like scientific research.[75][83][103][104] Traditional skin clothing is also preferred for special occasions like drum dances, weddings, and holiday festivities.[104][105] Notably, the once-extinct ceremonial clothing of the Copper Inuit has been revived for drum gatherings and other special occasions in Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories.[e][106] The modern Inuit of Igloolik celebrate Qaqqiq, the Return of the Sun, with a fashion show of caribou skin and cloth garments.[107]

Even garments made from woven or synthetic fabric today adhere to ancient forms and styles in a way that makes them simultaneously traditional and contemporary.[108][109] Modern Inuit clothing has been studied as an example of sustainable fashion and vernacular design.[110][111] Much of the clothing worn today by Inuit dwelling in the Arctic has been described as "a blend of tradition and modernity."[63] Issenman describes the continued use of traditional fur clothing as not simply a matter of practicality, but "a visual symbol of one's origin as a member of a dynamic and prestigious society whose roots extend into antiquity."[63]

Contemporary fashion

Refer to caption
Modern women's parka by Inuk designer Victoria Kakuktinniq, 2021. The body is made from synthetic waterproof fabric, with silver fox fur trim on the hood and sealskin trim on the hem and cuffs. The curved hem is typical of the traditional amauti.

Inuit-led fashion and protection of the amauti

Beginning in the 1990s,

fashion industry.[114] The program was successful, but raised concerns that traditional Inuit clothing pieces, especially the woman's parka or amauti, might be appropriated and genericized by non-Inuit, in the same way that Inuit cultural developments like kayaks, parkas, and to some extent even kamiit have.[112][113]

In 1999, American designer Donna Karan of DKNY sent representatives to the western Arctic to purchase traditional garments, including amauti, to use as inspiration for an upcoming collection.[115][112] Her representatives did not disclose the purpose of their visit to the local Inuit, who only became aware of the nature of the visit after a journalist contacted Inuit women's group Pauktuutit seeking comment. Pauktuutit described the company's actions as exploitative, stating "the fashion house took advantage of some of the less-educated people who did not know their rights."[116] The items they purchased were displayed at the company's New York boutique, which Pauktuutit believed was done without the knowledge or consent of the original seamstresses.[113] After a successful letter-writing campaign organized by Pauktuuit, DKNY cancelled the proposed collection.[115][112]

In 2001, following concerns raised by the Road to Independence project and the subsequent DKNY controversy, Pauktuutit launched the Amauti Project, which aimed to order to explore potential methods for legally protecting the amauti as an example of traditional knowledge collectively owned by all Inuit women.[117] After consultation with numerous Inuit seamstresses, the project released a report which concluded, "All Inuit own the amauti collectively, though individual seamstresses may use particular designs that are passed down between generations."[115][117] To safeguard that collective cultural ownership, Pauktuutit has lobbied the Canadian federal government and the World Intellectual Property Organization to create a special protected status for the amauti, but as of 2020, no such protection has been established.[118]

Men's dress shoes with undyed ringed seal skin, by Inuk designer Nicole Camphaug

The growth of Inuit fashion is supported by national organizations like Pauktuutit and Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, as well as local development associations like the Nunavut Arts and Crafts Association and the Nunavut Development Corporation.[119][120] Contemporary Inuit fashion has been featured in art exhibitions and fashion shows within the Arctic and outside of it.[120][121] In 2016, Quebec art collective AXENÉO7 held an exhibition, Floe Edge, which featured modern sealskin items by Inuit designers: lingerie by Nala Peter and high heels by Nicole Camphaug.[78] Writing for Inuit Art magaine, Leah Snyder described the focus on those pieces in the exhibition as "a wry critique on Southern expectations of Arctic fashion".[122] In 2017, Martha Kyak was the first Inuit designer to be featured at the Indigenius Art Music and Fashion Show in Ottawa.[123] Inuit designers Victoria Kakuktinniq and Melissa Attagutsiak were invited to show at the Indigenous Fashion Week event at Paris Fashion Week in March 2019.[120][124] In 2020, the Winnipeg Art Gallery launched an exhibition called Inuk Style featuring both historical and contemporary Inuit fashion.[125] Kakuktinniq also presented at New York Fashion Week in February 2020.[126]

Materials and visual style

Former Nunavut Member of Parliament Hunter Tootoo, 2015, wearing sealskin tie

Inuit fashion is a subset of the wider

Indigenous American fashion movement. Contemporary Inuit and northern designers use a mix of modern and traditional materials to create garments in both traditional and modern silhouettes. Victoria Kakuktinniq's work, which has been cited as a major influence in the modernization of Inuit fashion, focuses on parkas with traditional styling.[120] Melodie Haana-SikSik Lavallée combined satin with sealskin to make items that ranged from "Victorian gowns and bustiers to flapper-inspired dresses and 60s-inspired suits".[127] Many designers also make jewellery from local or sustainable materials such as bone.[120][124]

Some designers center aspects of Inuit culture through the visual design of their products. Artist and designer Becky Qilavvaq has produced garments printed with Inuit song lyrics and images of traditional tools.

Inuit tattooing.[130]

Those who focus on traditional materials such as sealskin often do so in support of traditional Inuit culture and the promotion of sustainable fashion.[65][78][131] Designer Rannva Simonsen, a Faroe Islander who emigrated to Nunavut in 1997, has been working with sealskin since 1999.[65][132] Nicole Camphaug originally started by experimenting with sewing sealskin scraps to her own boots, eventually turning to commercial sales of seal-trimmed shoes after friends and family asked for their own.[133]

The use of sealskin, a traditional Inuit clothing material, has often been controversial among non-Inuit due to the influence of anti-sealing campaigns by

vests.[135] Speaking to The Guardian in 2017, Rannva Simonsen noted that Canadians outside the Arctic appeared to be increasingly supportive of Inuit sealskin fashion.[65]

Non-Inuit clothing companies

Original shaman's parka, 1907
Garment by KTZ, 2015

The intersection between traditional Inuit clothing and the modern

fashion industry has often been contentious. Inuit seamstresses and designers have described instances of non-Inuit designers making use of traditional Inuit design motifs and clothing styles without obtaining permission or giving credit. In some cases, designers have altered original Inuit designs in a way that distorts their cultural context, but continue to label the products in a way that makes them appear to be authentically Inuit.[116][136] Inuit designers have criticized this practice as cultural appropriation.[115][137]

In 2015, London-based design house KTZ released a collection which included a number of Inuit-inspired garments. Of particular note was a sweater with designs taken directly from historical photographs of an Inuit shaman's unique caribou parka.[138] The garment, known variously as the Shaman's Parka or the Inuit Angakkuq Coat, is well-known to scholars of Inuit culture; Bernadette Driscoll Engelstad described it as "the most unique garment known to have been created in the Canadian Arctic."[139][140] It was designed in the late 19th century by the angakkuq Qingailisaq and sewn by his wife, Ataguarjugusiq. Either Qingailisaq or his son, the angakkuq Ava, sold the coat to Captain George Comer in 1902, who brought it to the American Museum of Natural History.[f][5][140] Its intricate designs, which resemble Koryak and Chukchi motifs, were inspired by spiritual visions.[5] Ava's great-grandchildren criticized KTZ for failing to obtain permission to use the design from his family.[138] After the criticism was picked up by the media, KTZ issued an apology and pulled the item from the market.[141]

Some brands have made efforts to work with Inuit designers directly. In 2019, Canadian winterwear brand Canada Goose launched Project Atigi, commissioning fourteen Canadian Inuit seamstresses to each design a unique parka or amauti from materials provided by Canada Goose. The designers retained the rights to their designs. The parkas were displayed in New York City and Paris before being sold, and the proceeds, which amounted to approximately $80,000, were donated to national Inuit organization Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK).[119][142] The following year, the company released an expanded collection called Atigi 2.0, which involved eighteen seamstresses who produced a total of ninety parkas. The proceeds from the sales were again donated to ITK. Gavin Thompson, vice-president of corporate citizenship for Canada Goose told CBC that the brand had plans to continue expanding the project in the future.[142] A parka from the original collection was later displayed at the Inuk Style exhibition at the Winnipeg Art Gallery.[125] Project Atigi has been criticized by some Inuit designers for not being sufficiently publicized to potential applicants.[143]

Notes

  1. ^ Kamiit is the Eastern Arctic term for boots, and mukluk is the Western Arctic equivalent. While there are some stylistic differences between them, they are functionally the same. This article refers to all Inuit boots as kamiit for consistency. The singular form of kamiit is kamik.[3]
  2. ^ The source uses the Before Present time scale for radiocarbon dating, which considers the present era to begin in 1950.
  3. ^ The European Economic Community is a predecessor to the European Union. Upon the formation of the EU in 1993, the EEC was incorporated into the EU and renamed the European Community (EC). In 2009, the EC formally ceased to exist and its institutions were directly absorbed by the EU.
  4. ^ Nunavut was not partitioned out from the Northwest Territories until 1999.
  5. ^ Ulukhaktok was formerly called Holman.
  6. ^ Ava is also frequently transliterated as Aua and Awa.

References

  1. ^ Stenton 1991, pp. 3–4.
  2. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 11.
  3. ^ Oakes & Riewe 1995, pp. 50, 54, 60.
  4. ^ a b Graburn 2005, p. 133.
  5. ^ a b c Issenman 2000, p. 113.
  6. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. 13–14.
  7. ^ Stenton 1991, p. 15.
  8. ^ Issenman 1997b, pp. 42–43.
  9. ^ Renouf & Bell 2008, p. 36.
  10. ^ a b Issenman 1997b, pp. 37–38.
  11. ^ a b Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 11.
  12. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. 9, 18.
  13. ^ a b Issenman 1997b, p. 44.
  14. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. 18, 234.
  15. ^ a b Issenman 2000, p. 112.
  16. ^ Issenman 1997b, pp. 47–48.
  17. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 21.
  18. ^ Issenman 2000, p. 114.
  19. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 24.
  20. ^ Stenton 1991, p. 16.
  21. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. 98, 172.
  22. ^ Inuktitut Magazine 2011, p. 14.
  23. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 171.
  24. ^ McGovern 2000, pp. 335–336.
  25. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. 173–174.
  26. ^ McGovern 2000, p. 336.
  27. ^ a b Issenman 1997a, p. 164.
  28. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 174.
  29. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 29.
  30. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 98.
  31. ^ a b Hall 2001, pp. 133–134.
  32. ^ a b c Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 89.
  33. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. 108, 117, 174.
  34. ^ Reitan 2007, p. 102.
  35. ^ Buijs 2005, p. 110.
  36. ^ Schmidt 2018, p. 124.
  37. ^ Bahnson 2005, pp. 87–88.
  38. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, pp. 81, 89–90.
  39. ^ Buijs 2005, p. 109.
  40. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 175.
  41. ^ Pharand 2012, p. 64.
  42. ^ a b Pharand 2012, pp. 21–22.
  43. ^ Petersen 2003, p. 143.
  44. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 176.
  45. ^ Pharand 2012, p. 21.
  46. ^ Dubuc 2002, p. 33.
  47. ^ Hall 2001, p. 133.
  48. ^ Issenman & Rankin 1988, p. 138.
  49. ^ a b Rholem 2001, p. 9.
  50. ^ a b c Issenman 1997a, pp. 108, 117.
  51. ^ a b Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 100.
  52. ^ a b Martin 2005, p. 123.
  53. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. 100, 166.
  54. ^ Hall 2001, pp. 135–136.
  55. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 92.
  56. ^ a b c Sponagle, Jane (30 December 2014). "Inuit parkas change with the times". CBC News. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  57. ^ Buijs 2005, pp. 109–110.
  58. ^ a b Driscoll-Engelstad 2005, pp. 41–42.
  59. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 98.
  60. ^ Hall 2001, p. 132.
  61. ^ Oakes & Riewe 1997, p. 93.
  62. ^ Oakes 1987, p. 46.
  63. ^ a b c Issenman 1997a, p. 177.
  64. ^ Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015, pp. 3, 14.
  65. ^ a b c d e f g h Kassam, Ashifa (11 May 2017). "'It's our way of life': Inuit designers are reclaiming the tarnished sealskin trade". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
  66. ^ Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015, p. 4.
  67. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 179.
  68. ^ a b Issenman 1997a, p. 224.
  69. ^ McGregor 2011, p. 4.
  70. ^ Oakes 1987, p. 47.
  71. ^ Oakes 1987, pp. 46, 49.
  72. ^ Driscoll-Engelstad 2005, p. 41.
  73. ^ Hall 2001, pp. 131–132.
  74. ^ Petrussen 2005, p. 45.
  75. ^ a b c d e Issenman 1997a, p. 242.
  76. ^ Oakes 1987, p. 48.
  77. ^ Copenhagen, Malcolm Brabant in (16 May 2015). "Inuit hunters' plea to the EU: lift ban seal cull or our lifestyle will be doomed". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  78. ^ a b c McCue, Duncan (14 March 2016). "Putting sexy back in sealskin: Nunavut seamstresses aim for high-end fashion market". CBC News. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  79. ^ Patar, Dustin (27 January 2020). "Inuit exemption to European Union's seal product ban is ineffective: report". Nunatsiaq News. Retrieved 1 July 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  80. ^ a b Zerehi, Sima Sahar (30 August 2016). "Crystal Serenity brings sales boom to Nunavut artists? Not so fast". CBC News. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  81. ^ a b Hwang, Priscilla (5 February 2017). "Why this Inuk son chose to proudly wear a sealskin parka made by his mom, amid social media backlash". CBC News. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  82. ^ Issenman 1997a, pp. ix–x.
  83. ^ a b Petrussen 2005, p. 47.
  84. ^ Graburn 2005, p. 135.
  85. ^ Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015, pp. 163, 167.
  86. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 226.
  87. ^ Tulloch, Kusugak & et al. 2013, pp. 28–32.
  88. ^ Issenman 1997a, p. 225.
  89. ^ a b Oakes 1987, pp. 14, 34.
  90. ^ a b Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 18.
  91. ^ Oakes & Riewe 1995, p. 34, 171.
  92. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 108.
  93. ^ Pharand 2012, pp. 66–68.
  94. ^ Oakes & Riewe 1997, p. 100.
  95. ^ a b Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, pp. 101, 108.
  96. ^ a b Rholem 2001, p. 46.
  97. ^ Issenman & Rankin 1988, p. 146.
  98. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, pp. 108–113, 115.
  99. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 115.
  100. ^ Rohner 2017.
  101. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, p. 110.
  102. ^ Hall, Oakes & Webster 1994, pp. 18, 107.
  103. ^ Oakes 1987, p. 6.
  104. ^ a b Rholem 2001, p. 32.
  105. ^ Oakes & Riewe 1995, p. 19, 31.
  106. ^ Driscoll-Engelstad 2005, pp. 42–44.
  107. ^ Pharand 2012, p. 71.
  108. ^ Reitan 2007, pp. 30–31.
  109. ^ Oakes & Riewe 1995, p. 17.
  110. ^ Skjerven & Reitan 2017, p. 129.
  111. ^ Reitan 2007, p. 17.
  112. ^ a b c d Bird 2002, p. 3.
  113. ^ a b c Dewar 2005, p. 25.
  114. ^ Bird 2002, p. 6.
  115. ^ a b c d Madwar, Samia (June 2014). "Inappropriation". Up Here. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
  116. ^ a b Dewar 2005, p. 24.
  117. ^ a b Bird 2002, p. 3–4.
  118. ^ Lakusta, Adam (24 July 2020). "Reforming Canada's Intellectual Property Laws: The Slow Path To Reconciliation". Canadian Bar Association. Retrieved 27 February 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  119. ^ a b McKay, Jackie (4 February 2019). "Canada Goose unveils parkas designed by Inuit designers". CBC News. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
  120. ^ a b c d e Rogers, Sarah (27 March 2019). "Nunavut fashion and design come into their own". Nunatsiaq News. Retrieved 1 July 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  121. ^ "Northern Scene: The dawning of a new era of Inuit artistry". Arctic Journal. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  122. ^ Snyder 2016, p. 46.
  123. ^ Frizzell, Sara (19 April 2017). "Inuit fashion featured for the first time at Indigenius show in Ottawa". CBC News. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  124. ^ a b Boon, Jacob (April–May 2019). "From Iqaluit to the Eiffel Tower". Up Here. Retrieved 1 July 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  125. ^ a b Monkman, Lenard (29 October 2020). "Winnipeg Art Gallery exhibition puts spotlight on Inuit clothing and jewelry". CBC News. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
  126. ^ McKay, Jackie (8 January 2020). "Victoria's Arctic Fashion gearing up for New York Fashion Week". CBC News. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  127. ^ Zerehi, Sima Sahar (10 July 2015). "Haana-SikSik, Inuk fashion designer, brings her designs home". CBC News. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  128. ^ Kurup, Rohini; Jung, Harry (21 April 2017). "Inuit artist Becky Qilavvaq melds clothing and culture". The Bowdoin Orient. Retrieved 11 July 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  129. ^ Rohner, Thomas (9 February 2017). "Winnipeg conference showcases Nunavut designers, businesses". Nunatsiaq News. Retrieved 19 June 2021.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  130. ^ Allford, Jennifer (23 October 2019). "Reclaiming Inuit culture, one tattoo at a time". CNN. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
  131. ^ Sardone, Andrew (17 January 2014). "High fashion's new home in the Canadian North". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  132. ^ "Nunavut fur designer moves into downtown Iqaluit shop". CBC News. 5 July 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  133. ^ "Nicole Camphaug takes sealskin footwear to new heights". CBC News. 21 July 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  134. ^ Patar, Dustin (30 December 2019). "Inuit crafters continue to be blocked on Facebook for selling sealskin". Nunatsiaq News. Retrieved 1 July 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  135. ^ Zerehi, Sima Sahar (17 May 2016). "Are attitudes around seal products changing?". CBC News. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  136. ^ Dubuc 2002, p. 38.
  137. ^ Grant, Meghan (25 May 2018). "Inuit 'wear their culture on their sleeve, literally': Inuk designer gears up for Indigenous fashion week". CBC News. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
  138. ^ a b "Nunavut family outraged after fashion label copies sacred Inuit design". CBC Radio. 25 November 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  139. ^ Zerehi, Sima Sahar (2 December 2015b). "Inuit shaman parka 'copied' by KTZ design well-studied by anthropologists". CBC News. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
  140. ^ a b MacDuffee, Allison (31 August 2018). "The Shaman's Legacy: The Inuit Angakuq Coat from Igloolik". National Gallery of Canada. Retrieved 16 April 2021.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  141. ^ "U.K. fashion house pulls copied Inuit design, here's their apology". CBC Radio. 27 November 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
  142. ^ a b McKay, Jackie (19 January 2020). "Inuit designers launch new line of parkas for Canada Goose". CBC News. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
  143. ^ "Inuk designer says not everyone informed about Canada Goose program". APTN National News. 22 February 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2021.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

Bibliography

Books

Periodicals
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Inuit_clothing&oldid=1080987742"