Stephen Wolfram: Difference between revisions

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* [[Wolfram Language]]
* [[Wolfram Language]]
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| influences =
| influences = [[Richard Crandall]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wolfram | first1 = S. | doi = 10.1145/2503697.2503700 | title = Remembering Richard Crandall (1947--2012) | journal = ACM Communications in Computer Algebra | volume = 47 | pages = 14 | year = 2013 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> [[Richard Feynman]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Steve Jobs]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.wolframalpha.com/2011/10/06/steve-jobs-a-few-memories/#more-15338|title=Steve Jobs: A Few Memories|access-date=2018-05-22}}</ref> [[George Zweig]]<ref>[http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline/page-xiv?firstview=1 Stephen Wolfram, ''A New Kind of Science''], p. xiv.</ref>
| website = {{startplainlist|class=nowrap}}
| website = {{startplainlist|class=nowrap}}
* {{URL|http://www.stephenwolfram.com}}
* {{URL|http://www.stephenwolfram.com}}
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==Early life==
==Early life==
===Family===
Stephen Wolfram was born in London in 1959 to Hugo and Sybil Wolfram, both [[German Jewish]] refugees to the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>''The Universal Mind: The Evolution of Machine Intelligence and Human Psychology'', Xiphias Press, 1 Sep 2016, Michael Peragine</ref>
Stephen Wolfram was born in London in 1959 to Hugo and Sybil Wolfram, both [[German Jewish]] refugees to the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>''The Universal Mind: The Evolution of Machine Intelligence and Human Psychology'', Xiphias Press, 1 Sep 2016, Michael Peragine</ref>


===Hugo Wolfram===
Wolfram's father, [[Hugo Wolfram]] (1925–2015), a textile manufacturer born in [[Bochum]], Germany, served as managing director of the Lurex Company, makers of the fabric [[Lurex]]. He was also the author of three novels.<ref name="Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon">[http://www.oxfordtimes.co.uk/business/profiles/931620.Telling_a_good_yarn/ Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon], Oxford Times, Thursday 21 September 2006.</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1981/05/24/us/physicist-awarded-genius-prize-finds-reality-in-invisible-world.html PHYSICIST AWARDED 'GENIUS' PRIZE FINDS REALITY IN INVISIBLE WORLD, by GLADWIN HILL, Special to the New York Times, Published: 24 May 1981]</ref><ref>[http://hgar-srv3.bu.edu/collections/collection?id=123005 Howard Gottlieb Archival Research Center: Wolfram, Hugo (1925- )]: "The Hugo Wolfram collection consists of manuscripts by Wolfram for novels, short stories, and essays."</ref><ref>[https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/hugo-wolfram/into-a-neutral-country/ Kirkus review of ''Into a Neutral Country''], 1969</ref> He emigrated to England in 1933.<ref>[http://www.juedischeliteraturwestfalen.de/index.php?valex=101&vArticle=1&author_id=00000308&id=1 Hugo Wolfram. 1925- ], Jüdische Schriftstellerinnen und Schriftsteller in Westfalen.</ref> When World War II broke out, he left school at 15 and subsequently found it hard to get a job since he was regarded as an "[[enemy alien]]". As an adult, he took correspondence courses in philosophy and psychology.<ref name="Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon"/>
Wolfram's father, [[Hugo Wolfram]] (1925–2015), a textile manufacturer born in [[Bochum]], Germany, served as managing director of the Lurex Company, makers of the fabric [[Lurex]]. He was also the author of three novels.<ref name="Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon">[http://www.oxfordtimes.co.uk/business/profiles/931620.Telling_a_good_yarn/ Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon], Oxford Times, Thursday 21 September 2006.</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1981/05/24/us/physicist-awarded-genius-prize-finds-reality-in-invisible-world.html PHYSICIST AWARDED 'GENIUS' PRIZE FINDS REALITY IN INVISIBLE WORLD, by GLADWIN HILL, Special to the New York Times, Published: 24 May 1981]</ref><ref>[http://hgar-srv3.bu.edu/collections/collection?id=123005 Howard Gottlieb Archival Research Center: Wolfram, Hugo (1925- )]: "The Hugo Wolfram collection consists of manuscripts by Wolfram for novels, short stories, and essays."</ref><ref>[https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/hugo-wolfram/into-a-neutral-country/ Kirkus review of ''Into a Neutral Country''], 1969</ref> He emigrated to England in 1933.<ref>[http://www.juedischeliteraturwestfalen.de/index.php?valex=101&vArticle=1&author_id=00000308&id=1 Hugo Wolfram. 1925- ], Jüdische Schriftstellerinnen und Schriftsteller in Westfalen.</ref> When World War II broke out, he left school at 15 and subsequently found it hard to get a job since he was regarded as an "[[enemy alien]]". As an adult, he took correspondence courses in philosophy and psychology.<ref name="Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon"/>


===Sybil Wolfram===
Wolfram's mother, [[Sybil Wolfram]] (1931–1993; born Sybille Misch), originally from [[Berlin, Germany]], was a Fellow and Tutor in Philosophy at [[Lady Margaret Hall]] at [[University of Oxford]] from 1964 to 1993. She published two books, ''Philosophical Logic: An Introduction'' (1989)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HSXJBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=sybil+wolfram+philosophy&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMteWqhqzJAhWJdD4KHaBODBcQ6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=sybil%20wolfram%20philosophy&f=false ''Philosophical Logic: An Introduction'' by Sybil Wolfram], 2014 [1989].</ref> and ''In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England'' (1987).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yZoOAAAAQAAJ&dq=sybil+wolfram&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZr5ewh6zJAhUDPz4KHd0XAUkQ6AEIIzAB ''In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England'' by Sybil Wolfram], 1987.</ref><ref name="levy1006">{{cite news | url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.06/wolfram_pr.html | title=The Man Who Cracked The Code to Everything ... | accessdate=2015-03-03 | author=Levy, Steven | issue=10.06 | publisher=Wired}}</ref> She was the translator of [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]'s ''La pensée sauvage'' (''[[The Savage Mind]]''), but later disavowed the translation.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1525/aa.1967.69.1.02a00160 | volume=69 | title=A Disclaimer | year=1967 | journal=American Anthropologist | page=86 | last1 = Wolfram | first1 = Sybil}}</ref><ref>''Times Literary Supplement'', 29 October 2008. "The century of Claude Lévi-Strauss: How the great anthropologist, now approaching his 100th birthday, has earned a place in the prestigious Pléiade library", by Patrick Wilcken.</ref> She was the daughter of criminologist and psychoanalyst [[Kate Friedlander]] (1902–1949), an expert on the subject of juvenile delinquency,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Psycho_Analytical_Approach_to_Juveni.html?id=MU1U1M8F3ekC ''The Psycho-Analytical Approach to Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Case Studies, Treatment'' by Kate Friedlander], 1998[1947].</ref> and the physician Walter Misch (1889–1943) who, together, wrote ''Die vegetative Genese der neurotischen Angst und ihre medikamentöse Beseitigung''.<ref>[http://www.psychoanalytikerinnen.de/greatbritain_biographies.html#Friedlaender Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902-1949)], Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon. Trans.: "The vegetative genesis of neurotic anxiety and drug elimination"</ref> After the [[Reichstag fire]] in 1933, she emigrated from Berlin, Germany to England with her parents and Jewish psychoanalyst [[Paula Heimann]] (1899–1982).<ref name="jstor.org">Smith, M. E.. (1993). Obituary. Anthropology Today, 9(6), 22–22. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2783224</ref><ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_06853.html FRIEDLANDER, KATE in Jewish Virtual Library].</ref><ref>[http://www.psychoanalytikerinnen.de/greatbritain_biographies.html#Friedlaender Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902-1949)], Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon.</ref>
Wolfram's mother, [[Sybil Wolfram]] (1931–1993; born Sybille Misch), originally from [[Berlin, Germany]], was a Fellow and Tutor in Philosophy at [[Lady Margaret Hall]] at [[University of Oxford]] from 1964 to 1993. She published two books, ''Philosophical Logic: An Introduction'' (1989)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HSXJBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=sybil+wolfram+philosophy&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMteWqhqzJAhWJdD4KHaBODBcQ6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=sybil%20wolfram%20philosophy&f=false ''Philosophical Logic: An Introduction'' by Sybil Wolfram], 2014 [1989].</ref> and ''In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England'' (1987).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yZoOAAAAQAAJ&dq=sybil+wolfram&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZr5ewh6zJAhUDPz4KHd0XAUkQ6AEIIzAB ''In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England'' by Sybil Wolfram], 1987.</ref><ref name="levy1006">{{cite news | url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.06/wolfram_pr.html | title=The Man Who Cracked The Code to Everything ... | accessdate=2015-03-03 | author=Levy, Steven | issue=10.06 | publisher=Wired}}</ref> She was the translator of [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]'s ''La pensée sauvage'' (''[[The Savage Mind]]''), but later disavowed the translation.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1525/aa.1967.69.1.02a00160 | volume=69 | title=A Disclaimer | year=1967 | journal=American Anthropologist | page=86 | last1 = Wolfram | first1 = Sybil}}</ref><ref>''Times Literary Supplement'', 29 October 2008. "The century of Claude Lévi-Strauss: How the great anthropologist, now approaching his 100th birthday, has earned a place in the prestigious Pléiade library", by Patrick Wilcken.</ref> She was the daughter of criminologist and psychoanalyst [[Kate Friedlander]] (1902–1949), an expert on the subject of juvenile delinquency,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Psycho_Analytical_Approach_to_Juveni.html?id=MU1U1M8F3ekC ''The Psycho-Analytical Approach to Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Case Studies, Treatment'' by Kate Friedlander], 1998[1947].</ref> and the physician Walter Misch (1889–1943) who, together, wrote ''Die vegetative Genese der neurotischen Angst und ihre medikamentöse Beseitigung''.<ref>[http://www.psychoanalytikerinnen.de/greatbritain_biographies.html#Friedlaender Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902-1949)], Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon. Trans.: "The vegetative genesis of neurotic anxiety and drug elimination"</ref> After the [[Reichstag fire]] in 1933, she emigrated from Berlin, Germany to England with her parents and Jewish psychoanalyst [[Paula Heimann]] (1899–1982).<ref name="jstor.org">Smith, M. E.. (1993). Obituary. Anthropology Today, 9(6), 22–22. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2783224</ref><ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_06853.html FRIEDLANDER, KATE in Jewish Virtual Library].</ref><ref>[http://www.psychoanalytikerinnen.de/greatbritain_biographies.html#Friedlaender Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902-1949)], Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon.</ref>


==Personal life==
Stephen Wolfram is married to a mathematician. They have four children together.<ref>{{cite episode|url=http://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2009/05/29/2584139.htm|title=Stephen Wolfram|series=Sunday Profile|network=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|airdate=2009-05-31}}</ref><ref>http://www.stephenwolfram.com/bio-facts/</ref>
Stephen Wolfram is married to a mathematician. They have four children together.<ref>{{cite episode|url=http://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2009/05/29/2584139.htm|title=Stephen Wolfram|series=Sunday Profile|network=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|airdate=2009-05-31}}</ref><ref>http://www.stephenwolfram.com/bio-facts/</ref>


Stephen's son, Christopher, is currently pursuing a degree in mathematics and computer science. He is the co-inventor of a patented method and computing device for [[Optical character recognition|optically recognizing mathematical expressions]]. Christopher has presented and led workshops at several highly-regarded conferences and events including [[South by Southwest]] Interactive, [[University of Oxford]] Summer School, and [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] Independent Activities Period. In 2016, he was awarded as Best Technical Advisor at the Raw Science Film Festival for his work on the movie, [[Arrival (film)|''Arrival'']]. Among many other personal achievements, he serves as a programmer for [[Wolfram Research]].
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==Education and early career==

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===Education===
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Wolfram was educated at [[Eton College]], but left prematurely in 1976.<ref>[http://blog.stephenwolfram.com/2014/06/a-speech-for-high-school-graduates/ A Speech for (High-School) Graduates] by Stephen Wolfram a commencement speech for Stanford Online High School, StephenWolfram.com, 9 June 2014: "You know, as it happens, I myself never officially graduated from high school, and this is actually the first high school graduation I've ever been to."</ref> He entered [[St. John's College, Oxford]] at age 17 but found lectures "awful",{{r|levy1006}} and left in 1978<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bbN-6aDFrrAC&lpg=PA151&ots=BhcxLgDQ8v&dq=murray%20Stephen%20wolfram&pg=PA151#v=onepage&q=murray%20gelman%20STephen%20wolfram&f=false Complexity: A Guided Tour]'' by Melanie Mitchell, 2009, p. 151: "In the early 1980s, Stephen Wolfram, a physicist working at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, became fascinated by cellular automata and the patterns they make. Wolfram is one of those legendary child prodigies people like to tell stories about. Born in London in 1959, Wolfram published his first physics paper at 15. Two years later, in the summer after his first year at Oxford, . . . Wolfram wrote a paper in the field of "quantum chromodynamics" that attracted the attention of Nobel-Prize-winning physicist Murray Gell-Mann, who invited Wolfram to join his group at Caltech…"</ref> without graduating{{r|arndt20020517}}<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jun/29/stephen-wolfram-textbook-never-interested-me-wolframalpha Stephen Wolfram: 'The textbook has never interested me': The British child genius who abandoned physics to devote himself to coding and the cosmos], by Zoë Corbyn, The Guardian, Saturday 28 June 2014: "He entered Oxford University at 17 without A-levels and left around a year later without graduating. He was bored and he had been invited to cross the pond by the prestigious California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to do a PhD. "I had written a bunch of papers and so was pretty well known by that time,"" ...</ref> to attend the [[California Institute of Technology]], the following year, where he received a PhD<ref name="mathgene">{{MathGenealogy|id=114676}}</ref> in particle physics on 19 November 1979 at age 20.<ref name="wolframphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Stephen|last=Wolfram |title=Some Topics in Theoretical High-Energy Physics |publisher=California Institute of Technology |date=1980 |url=http://thesis.library.caltech.edu/2597|authorlink=Stephen Wolfram}}</ref> Wolfram's [[thesis|thesis committee]] was composed of [[Richard Feynman]], [[Peter Goldreich]], Frank J. Sciulli and [[Steven Frautschi]], and chaired by Richard D. Field.<ref name="wolframphd"/><ref>[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:StephenWolframCalTechThesisApplication.pdf Application]</ref>
==Early career==
As a young child, Wolfram had difficulties learning arithmetic.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1981/05/24/us/physicist-awarded-genius-prize-finds-reality-in-invisible-world.html PHYSICIST AWARDED 'GENIUS' PRIZE FINDS REALITY IN INVISIBLE WORLD, by GLADWIN HILL, Special to the New York Times, Published: 24 May 1981]: "''When I first went to school, they thought I was behind,'' he says, ''because I didn't want to read the silly books they gave us. And I never was able to do arithmetic.'' It was when he got into higher mathematics, such as calculus, he says, that he realized there was an invisible world that he wanted to explore."</ref> At the age of 12, he wrote a dictionary on physics.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/ConciseDirectoryOfPhysics.pdf|title=Concise Directory of Physics|year=1972|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref> By 13 or 14, he had written three books on particle physics.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/PhysicsOfSubatomicParticles.pdf|title=The Physics of Subatomic Particles|year=1973|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/IntroductionToTheWeakInteractionVolumeOne.pdf|title=Introduction to the Weak Interaction|volume=1|year=1974|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/IntroductionToTheWeakInteractionVolumeTwo.pdf|title=Introduction to the Weak Interaction|volume=2|year=1974|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref>
As a young child, Wolfram had difficulties learning arithmetic.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1981/05/24/us/physicist-awarded-genius-prize-finds-reality-in-invisible-world.html PHYSICIST AWARDED 'GENIUS' PRIZE FINDS REALITY IN INVISIBLE WORLD, by GLADWIN HILL, Special to the New York Times, Published: 24 May 1981]: "''When I first went to school, they thought I was behind,'' he says, ''because I didn't want to read the silly books they gave us. And I never was able to do arithmetic.'' It was when he got into higher mathematics, such as calculus, he says, that he realized there was an invisible world that he wanted to explore."</ref> At the age of 12, he wrote a dictionary on physics.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/ConciseDirectoryOfPhysics.pdf|title=Concise Directory of Physics|year=1972|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref> By 13 or 14, he had written three books on particle physics.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/PhysicsOfSubatomicParticles.pdf|title=The Physics of Subatomic Particles|year=1973|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/IntroductionToTheWeakInteractionVolumeOne.pdf|title=Introduction to the Weak Interaction|volume=1|year=1974|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/books/unpublished/IntroductionToTheWeakInteractionVolumeTwo.pdf|title=Introduction to the Weak Interaction|volume=2|year=1974|author=S. Wolfram}}</ref>


===Particle physics===
===Particle physics===
Wolfram, at the age of 15, began research in applied [[quantum field theory]] and [[particle physics]] and published scientific papers. Topics included [[matter creation]] and [[annihilation]], the [[fundamental interaction]]s, [[elementary particle]]s and their currents, [[hadron]]ic and [[lepton]]ic physics, and the [[Parton (particle physics)|parton model]], published in professional [[peer-reviewed]] [[scientific journal]]s including ''[[Nuclear Physics (journal)|Nuclear Physics]] B'', ''[[Australian Journal of Physics]]'', ''[[Nuovo Cimento]]'', and ''[[Physical Review]] D''.<ref>[http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/articles/particle/ Stephen Wolfram: Articles on Particle Physics]</ref> Working independently, Wolfram published a widely cited paper on heavy [[quark]] production at age 18<ref name="bio">{{Cite journal |last1 = Giles|first1 = J.|title = Stephen Wolfram: What kind of science is this?|doi = 10.1038/417216a|journal = Nature|volume = 417|issue = 6886|pages = 216–218|year = 2002|pmid = 12015565|pmc = |bibcode = 2002Natur.417..216G }}</ref> and nine other papers,{{r|levy1006}} and continued research and to publish on particle physics into his early twenties. Wolfram's work with [[Geoffrey C. Fox]] on the theory of the [[Quantum chromodynamics|strong interaction]] is still used in experimental particle physics.<ref name="observables">{{Cite journal | last1 = Fox | first1 = G. | last2 = Wolfram | first2 = S. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.41.1581 | title = Observables for the Analysis of Event Shapes in e^{+}e^{-} Annihilation and Other Processes | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 41 | issue = 23 | pages = 1581 | year = 1978 | pmid = | pmc = |bibcode = 1978PhRvL..41.1581F }}</ref>
Wolfram, at the age of 15, began research in applied [[quantum field theory]] and [[particle physics]] and published scientific papers. Topics included [[matter creation]] and [[annihilation]], the [[fundamental interaction]]s, [[elementary particle]]s and their currents, [[hadron]]ic and [[lepton]]ic physics, and the [[Parton (particle physics)|parton model]], published in professional [[peer-reviewed]] [[scientific journal]]s including ''[[Nuclear Physics (journal)|Nuclear Physics]] B'', ''[[Australian Journal of Physics]]'', ''[[Nuovo Cimento]]'', and ''[[Physical Review]] D''.<ref>[http://www.stephenwolfram.com/publications/articles/particle/ Stephen Wolfram: Articles on Particle Physics]</ref> Working independently, Wolfram published a widely cited paper on heavy [[quark]] production at age 18<ref name="bio">{{Cite journal |last1 = Giles|first1 = J.|title = Stephen Wolfram: What kind of science is this?|doi = 10.1038/417216a|journal = Nature|volume = 417|issue = 6886|pages = 216–218|year = 2002|pmid = 12015565|pmc = |bibcode = 2002Natur.417..216G }}</ref> and nine other papers,{{r|levy1006}} and continued research and to publish on particle physics into his early twenties. Wolfram's work with [[Geoffrey C. Fox]] on the theory of the [[Quantum chromodynamics|strong interaction]] is still used in experimental particle physics.<ref name="observables">{{Cite journal | last1 = Fox | first1 = G. | last2 = Wolfram | first2 = S. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.41.1581 | title = Observables for the Analysis of Event Shapes in e^{+}e^{-} Annihilation and Other Processes | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 41 | issue = 23 | pages = 1581 | year = 1978 | pmid = | pmc = |bibcode = 1978PhRvL..41.1581F }}</ref>

⚫
He was educated at [[Eton College]], but left prematurely in 1976.<ref>[http://blog.stephenwolfram.com/2014/06/a-speech-for-high-school-graduates/ A Speech for (High-School) Graduates] by Stephen Wolfram a commencement speech for Stanford Online High School, StephenWolfram.com, 9 June 2014: "You know, as it happens, I myself never officially graduated from high school, and this is actually the first high school graduation I've ever been to."</ref> He entered [[St. John's College, Oxford]] at age 17 but found lectures "awful",{{r|levy1006}} and left in 1978<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bbN-6aDFrrAC&lpg=PA151&ots=BhcxLgDQ8v&dq=murray%20Stephen%20wolfram&pg=PA151#v=onepage&q=murray%20gelman%20STephen%20wolfram&f=false Complexity: A Guided Tour]'' by Melanie Mitchell, 2009, p. 151: "In the early 1980s, Stephen Wolfram, a physicist working at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, became fascinated by cellular automata and the patterns they make. Wolfram is one of those legendary child prodigies people like to tell stories about. Born in London in 1959, Wolfram published his first physics paper at 15. Two years later, in the summer after his first year at Oxford, . . . Wolfram wrote a paper in the field of "quantum chromodynamics" that attracted the attention of Nobel-Prize-winning physicist Murray Gell-Mann, who invited Wolfram to join his group at Caltech…"</ref> without graduating{{r|arndt20020517}}<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jun/29/stephen-wolfram-textbook-never-interested-me-wolframalpha Stephen Wolfram: 'The textbook has never interested me': The British child genius who abandoned physics to devote himself to coding and the cosmos], by Zoë Corbyn, The Guardian, Saturday 28 June 2014: "He entered Oxford University at 17 without A-levels and left around a year later without graduating. He was bored and he had been invited to cross the pond by the prestigious California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to do a PhD. "I had written a bunch of papers and so was pretty well known by that time,"" ...</ref> to attend the [[California Institute of Technology]], the following year, where he received a PhD<ref name="mathgene">{{MathGenealogy|id=114676}}</ref> in particle physics on 19 November 1979 at age 20.<ref name="wolframphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Stephen|last=Wolfram |title=Some Topics in Theoretical High-Energy Physics |publisher=California Institute of Technology |date=1980 |url=http://thesis.library.caltech.edu/2597|authorlink=Stephen Wolfram}}</ref> Wolfram's [[thesis|thesis committee]] was composed of [[Richard Feynman]], [[Peter Goldreich]], Frank J. Sciulli and [[Steven Frautschi]], and chaired by Richard D. Field.<ref name="wolframphd"/><ref>[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:StephenWolframCalTechThesisApplication.pdf Application]</ref>


A 1981 letter from Feynman to Gerald Freund giving reference for Wolfram for the MacArthur grant appears in Feynman's collected letters, ''[[Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track]]''. Following his PhD, Wolfram joined the faculty at Caltech and became the youngest recipient<ref>{{Cite web|title = About Stephen Wolfram|url = http://www.stephenwolfram.com/about/|website = www.stephenwolfram.com|accessdate = 2015-10-13}}</ref> of the [[MacArthur Fellows Program|MacArthur Fellowships]] in 1981, at age 21.<ref name="arndt20020517">{{cite news |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/bw/stories/2002-05-16/stephen-wolframs-simple-science|title = Stephen Wolfram's Simple Science|accessdate = 20 August 2015|author = Arndt, Michael|date = 17 May 2002|publisher = BusinessWeek}}</ref>
A 1981 letter from Feynman to Gerald Freund giving reference for Wolfram for the MacArthur grant appears in Feynman's collected letters, ''[[Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track]]''. Following his PhD, Wolfram joined the faculty at Caltech and became the youngest recipient<ref>{{Cite web|title = About Stephen Wolfram|url = http://www.stephenwolfram.com/about/|website = www.stephenwolfram.com|accessdate = 2015-10-13}}</ref> of the [[MacArthur Fellows Program|MacArthur Fellowships]] in 1981, at age 21.<ref name="arndt20020517">{{cite news |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/bw/stories/2002-05-16/stephen-wolframs-simple-science|title = Stephen Wolfram's Simple Science|accessdate = 20 August 2015|author = Arndt, Michael|date = 17 May 2002|publisher = BusinessWeek}}</ref>

Revision as of 22:15, 24 January 2019

Stephen Wolfram
Wolfram in 2008
Born (1959-08-29) 29 August 1959 (age 64)
London, England, United Kingdom
NationalityBritish, American
EducationDragon School[5]
Eton College
Alma mater
Known for
AwardsMacArthur Fellowship (1981)
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
ThesisSome Topics in Theoretical High-Energy Physics (1980)
Doctoral advisorRichard D. Field[3]
Website

Stephen Wolfram (/ˈwʊlfrəm/; born 29 August 1959) is a British-American[6] computer scientist, physicist, and businessman. He is known for his work in computer science, mathematics, and in theoretical physics.[7][8] In 2012, he was named an inaugural fellow of the American Mathematical Society.[9]

As a businessman, he is the founder and CEO of the software company

knowledge-based programming, expanding and refining the programming language of Mathematica into what is now called the Wolfram Language
.

Early life

Family

Stephen Wolfram was born in London in 1959 to Hugo and Sybil Wolfram, both

German Jewish refugees to the United Kingdom.[10]

Wolfram's father, Hugo Wolfram (1925–2015), a textile manufacturer born in Bochum, Germany, served as managing director of the Lurex Company, makers of the fabric Lurex. He was also the author of three novels.[11][12][13][14] He emigrated to England in 1933.[15] When World War II broke out, he left school at 15 and subsequently found it hard to get a job since he was regarded as an "enemy alien". As an adult, he took correspondence courses in philosophy and psychology.[11]

Wolfram's mother,

Lady Margaret Hall at University of Oxford from 1964 to 1993. She published two books, Philosophical Logic: An Introduction (1989)[16] and In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England (1987).[17][18] She was the translator of Claude Lévi-Strauss's La pensée sauvage (The Savage Mind), but later disavowed the translation.[19][20] She was the daughter of criminologist and psychoanalyst Kate Friedlander (1902–1949), an expert on the subject of juvenile delinquency,[21] and the physician Walter Misch (1889–1943) who, together, wrote Die vegetative Genese der neurotischen Angst und ihre medikamentöse Beseitigung.[22] After the Reichstag fire in 1933, she emigrated from Berlin, Germany to England with her parents and Jewish psychoanalyst Paula Heimann (1899–1982).[23][24][25]

Stephen Wolfram is married to a mathematician. They have four children together.[26][27]

Stephen's son, Christopher, is currently pursuing a degree in mathematics and computer science. He is the co-inventor of a patented method and computing device for optically recognizing mathematical expressions. Christopher has presented and led workshops at several highly-regarded conferences and events including South by Southwest Interactive, University of Oxford Summer School, and MIT Independent Activities Period. In 2016, he was awarded as Best Technical Advisor at the Raw Science Film Festival for his work on the movie, Arrival. Among many other personal achievements, he serves as a programmer for Wolfram Research.

Education

Wolfram was educated at

St. John's College, Oxford at age 17 but found lectures "awful",[18] and left in 1978[29] without graduating[30][31] to attend the California Institute of Technology, the following year, where he received a PhD[32] in particle physics on 19 November 1979 at age 20.[33] Wolfram's thesis committee was composed of Richard Feynman, Peter Goldreich, Frank J. Sciulli and Steven Frautschi, and chaired by Richard D. Field.[33][34]

Early career

As a young child, Wolfram had difficulties learning arithmetic.[35] At the age of 12, he wrote a dictionary on physics.[36] By 13 or 14, he had written three books on particle physics.[37][38][39]

Particle physics

Wolfram, at the age of 15, began research in applied

peer-reviewed scientific journals including Nuclear Physics B, Australian Journal of Physics, Nuovo Cimento, and Physical Review D.[40] Working independently, Wolfram published a widely cited paper on heavy quark production at age 18[4] and nine other papers,[18] and continued research and to publish on particle physics into his early twenties. Wolfram's work with Geoffrey C. Fox on the theory of the strong interaction is still used in experimental particle physics.[41]

A 1981 letter from Feynman to Gerald Freund giving reference for Wolfram for the MacArthur grant appears in Feynman's collected letters, Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track. Following his PhD, Wolfram joined the faculty at Caltech and became the youngest recipient[42] of the MacArthur Fellowships in 1981, at age 21.[30]

Later career

Complex systems and cellular automata

In 1983, Wolfram left for the School of Natural Sciences of the

Turing complete, which was later proved correct.[49]

A 1985 letter from Feynman to Wolfram also appears in Feynman's letters. In it, in response to Wolfram writing to him that he was thinking about creating some kind of institute where he might study complex systems, Feynman tells Wolfram, "You do not understand ordinary people," and advises him "find a way to do your research with as little contact with non-technical people as possible."[50]

In the mid-1980s, Wolfram worked on simulations of physical processes (such as

University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign[53] and, in 1987, the journal Complex Systems.[53] As the first journal in the field, Complex Systems
has published many papers over the course of three decades. Complex Systems has developed a broad base of readers and contributors from academia, industry, government and the general public in over 50 countries around the world.

Symbolic Manipulation Program

Main article:
Symbolic Manipulation Program

Wolfram led the development of the

Symbolic Manipulation Program) in the Caltech physics department during 1979–1981. A dispute with the administration over the intellectual property rights regarding SMP—patents, copyright, and faculty involvement in commercial ventures—eventually caused him to resign from Caltech.[54]
SMP was further developed and marketed commercially by Inference Corp. of Los Angeles during 1983–1988.

Institute for Advanced Study

Main article: Institute for Advanced Study

In 1983, Wolfram joined the Institute for Advanced Study, the Princeton, New Jersey-based former home of Albert Einstein. But by that time, he was no longer interested in particle physics. Instead, he began pursuing what he viewed as more creative areas — specifically, cellular automata. Wolfram methodically analyzed sets of rules, developing a classification system that rated the complexity of various cellular automata — all with the intention of clarifying the way we view complexity in the real world. In Wolfram's mind, studying the results of cellular-automata runs on the computer could unlock deep truths about the universe itself.[55]

Wolfram's cellular-automata work came to be cited in more than 10,000 papers.[55]

Mathematica

Main article:
Mathematica

In 1986, Wolfram left the

University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign where he founded their Center for Complex Systems Research and started to develop the computer algebra system Mathematica, which was first released on 23 June 1988, when he left academia. In 1987, he founded Wolfram Research which continues to develop and market the program.[4]

Near the end of Sybil Wolfram's life, as part of her research for In-laws and Outlaws, she used her son's program Mathematica to analyze her data.[23]

Wolfram's younger brother, Conrad Wolfram, serves as CEO of Wolfram Research Europe, Ltd.[56][57]

A New Kind of Science

Main article: A New Kind of Science

From 1992 to 2002, he worked on his controversial book A New Kind of Science,[4][58] which presents an empirical study of simple computational systems. Additionally, it argues that for fundamental reasons these types of systems, rather than traditional mathematics, are needed to model and understand complexity in nature. Wolfram's conclusion is that the universe is digital in its nature, and runs on fundamental laws which can be described as simple programs. He predicts that a realization of this within the scientific communities will have a major and revolutionary influence on physics, chemistry and biology and the majority of the scientific areas in general, which is the reason for the book's title.

Since the release of the book in 2002,[2] Wolfram has split his time between developing Mathematica and encouraging people to get involved with the subject matter of A New Kind of Science by giving talks, holding conferences, and starting a summer school devoted to the topic.[59]

Wolfram axiom

The Wolfram axiom is the result of a computer exploration in A New Kind of Science looking for the shortest single axiom equivalent to the axioms of Boolean algebra (or propositional calculus). The result[60] of his search was an axiom with six NAND operations and three variables equivalent to Boolean algebra:

where the vertical bar represents the NAND logical operation (also known as the Sheffer stroke). The 25 candidates are precisely the set of Sheffer identities of length less or equal to 15 elements (excluding mirror images) that have no noncommutative models of size less or equal to 4 (variables).[61]

Applications of A New Kind of Science

In 2003, Wolfram hosted the first Wolfram Summer School at

Pisa, Italy. In 2012, the program was held at Curry College in Milton, Massachusetts. Since 2013, the Wolfram Summer School has been held annually at Bentley University in Waltham, Massachusetts
.

In A New Kind of Science is the idea of exploring a new abstract universe: a computational universe of simple programs. In A New Kind of Science, Wolfram shows how simple programs in his computational universe capture the essence of the complexity - and beauty - of many systems in nature. This led to the creation of Wolfram Tones which works by taking simple programs from Wolfram's computational universe, applying music theory, and Wolfram Language algorithms to render them as music. Each program in effect defines a virtual world, with its own special story — and Wolfram Tones captures it as a musical composition.

In A New Kind of Science, Wolfram found what was then the simplest known universal Turing machine — with 2 states and 5 colors. However, he also did an extensive search of simpler Turing machines and in doing that, found a much simpler candidate for universality, a 2,3 Turing machine. On 14 May 2007, (the fifth anniversary of the publication of A New Kind of Science), Wolfram announced a $25,000 prize for the first person to determine whether or not the 2,3 Turing machine was actually universal or not, and could provide proof. Five months after the contest's announcement, an undergraduate student from Birmingham, UK, successfully found the 2,3 Turing machine to be universal and provided a 40-page paper[62] to prove his findings.

Wolfram Alpha computational knowledge engine

Main article:
Wolfram Alpha

In March 2009, Wolfram announced Wolfram|Alpha, an

application programming interface allows other applications to extend and enhance Alpha.[65] Wolfram believes that as Wolfram Alpha comes into common use, "It will raise the level of scientific things that the average person can do."[66]

Wolfram Alpha is one of the answer engines behind

Siri answering factual questions.[69]

Touchpress

Main article: Touchpress

In 2010, Wolfram co-founded Touchpress along with Theodore Gray, Max Whitby, and John Cromie. The company specialised in creating in-depth premium apps and games covering a wide range of educational subjects designed for children, parents, students, and educators. Since the launch, Touchpress has published more than 100 apps. [70]

Wolfram Language

Main article: Wolfram Language

In March 2014, at the annual

Mathematica, it was not officially named until 2014.[72] Wolfram's son, Christopher Wolfram, appeared on the program of SXSW giving a live-coding demonstration using Wolfram Language[73] and has blogged about Wolfram Language for Wolfram Research.[74]

On 8 December 2015, Wolfram published the book "An Elementary Introduction to the Wolfram Language" to introduce people with no knowledge of programming to the Wolfram Language and the kind of computation it allows.[75] The release of the second edition of the book[76] coincided with a "CEO for hire" competition during the 2017 Collision tech conference.[77]

Personal analytics

The significance data has on the products Wolfram creates transfers into his own life. He has an extensive log of personal analytics, including emails received and sent, keystrokes made, meetings and events attended, phone calls, even physical movement dating back to the 1980s. He has stated "[personal analytics] can give us a whole new dimension to experiencing our lives".[78]

In popular culture

Both Stephen Wolfram and Christopher Wolfram were involved in helping create the alien language for the film Arrival, for which they used the Wolfram Language.[79][80][81]

Beginning in 2017, Wolfram began to

Twitch.tv, YouTube Live, and Facebook Live. All archived live streams can also be accessed on his personal website
.

Since 2018, Wolfram has been producing a podcast. On his podcast, Stephen discusses topics ranging from the history of science to the future of civilization and ethics of AI.

Bibliography

  • Idea Makers: Personal Perspectives on the Lives & Ideas of Some Notable People (2016)[82]
  • Elementary Introduction to the Wolfram Language (2015)[83]
  • A New Kind of Science (2002)
  • The Mathematica Book (multiple editions)
  • Cellular Automata and Complexity: Collected Papers (1994)
  • Theory and Applications of Cellular Automata (1986)

References

  1. ISBN 9781450320597
    .
  2. ^ a b Stephen Wolfram's publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database. (subscription required)
  3. ^ "Some topics in theoretical high-energy physics". Caltech Library. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
  4. ^
    PMID 12015565
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  5. ^ My Life in Technology—As Told at the Computer History Museum
  6. ^ "Biographical Facts for Stephen Wolfram". www.stephenwolfram.com. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  7. ^ "Stephen Wolfram". Wolfram Alpha. Retrieved 15 May 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ "Stephen Wolfram: 'I am an information pack rat'". New Scientist. Retrieved 19 April 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ^ List of Fellows of the American Mathematical Society, retrieved 1 September 2013.
  10. ^ The Universal Mind: The Evolution of Machine Intelligence and Human Psychology, Xiphias Press, 1 Sep 2016, Michael Peragine
  11. ^ a b Telling a good yarn by Jenny Lunnon, Oxford Times, Thursday 21 September 2006.
  12. ^ PHYSICIST AWARDED 'GENIUS' PRIZE FINDS REALITY IN INVISIBLE WORLD, by GLADWIN HILL, Special to the New York Times, Published: 24 May 1981
  13. ^ Howard Gottlieb Archival Research Center: Wolfram, Hugo (1925- ): "The Hugo Wolfram collection consists of manuscripts by Wolfram for novels, short stories, and essays."
  14. ^ Kirkus review of Into a Neutral Country, 1969
  15. ^ Hugo Wolfram. 1925- , Jüdische Schriftstellerinnen und Schriftsteller in Westfalen.
  16. ^ Philosophical Logic: An Introduction by Sybil Wolfram, 2014 [1989].
  17. ^ In-laws and Outlaws: Kinship and Marriage in England by Sybil Wolfram, 1987.
  18. ^ a b c Levy, Steven. "The Man Who Cracked The Code to Everything ..." No. 10.06. Wired. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
  19. doi:10.1525/aa.1967.69.1.02a00160
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  20. ^ Times Literary Supplement, 29 October 2008. "The century of Claude Lévi-Strauss: How the great anthropologist, now approaching his 100th birthday, has earned a place in the prestigious Pléiade library", by Patrick Wilcken.
  21. ^ The Psycho-Analytical Approach to Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Case Studies, Treatment by Kate Friedlander, 1998[1947].
  22. ^ Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902-1949), Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon. Trans.: "The vegetative genesis of neurotic anxiety and drug elimination"
  23. ^ a b Smith, M. E.. (1993). Obituary. Anthropology Today, 9(6), 22–22. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2783224
  24. ^ FRIEDLANDER, KATE in Jewish Virtual Library.
  25. ^ Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902-1949), Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon.
  26. ^ "Stephen Wolfram". Sunday Profile. 31 May 2009. Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
  27. ^ http://www.stephenwolfram.com/bio-facts/
  28. ^ A Speech for (High-School) Graduates by Stephen Wolfram a commencement speech for Stanford Online High School, StephenWolfram.com, 9 June 2014: "You know, as it happens, I myself never officially graduated from high school, and this is actually the first high school graduation I've ever been to."
  29. ^ Complexity: A Guided Tour by Melanie Mitchell, 2009, p. 151: "In the early 1980s, Stephen Wolfram, a physicist working at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, became fascinated by cellular automata and the patterns they make. Wolfram is one of those legendary child prodigies people like to tell stories about. Born in London in 1959, Wolfram published his first physics paper at 15. Two years later, in the summer after his first year at Oxford, . . . Wolfram wrote a paper in the field of "quantum chromodynamics" that attracted the attention of Nobel-Prize-winning physicist Murray Gell-Mann, who invited Wolfram to join his group at Caltech…"
  30. ^ a b Arndt, Michael (17 May 2002). "Stephen Wolfram's Simple Science". BusinessWeek. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
  31. ^ Stephen Wolfram: 'The textbook has never interested me': The British child genius who abandoned physics to devote himself to coding and the cosmos, by Zoë Corbyn, The Guardian, Saturday 28 June 2014: "He entered Oxford University at 17 without A-levels and left around a year later without graduating. He was bored and he had been invited to cross the pond by the prestigious California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to do a PhD. "I had written a bunch of papers and so was pretty well known by that time,"" ...
  32. ^ Stephen Wolfram at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
  33. ^ a b Wolfram, Stephen (1980). Some Topics in Theoretical High-Energy Physics (PhD thesis). California Institute of Technology.
  34. ^ Application
  35. ^ PHYSICIST AWARDED 'GENIUS' PRIZE FINDS REALITY IN INVISIBLE WORLD, by GLADWIN HILL, Special to the New York Times, Published: 24 May 1981: "When I first went to school, they thought I was behind, he says, because I didn't want to read the silly books they gave us. And I never was able to do arithmetic. It was when he got into higher mathematics, such as calculus, he says, that he realized there was an invisible world that he wanted to explore."
  36. ^ S. Wolfram (1972). Concise Directory of Physics (PDF).
  37. ^ S. Wolfram (1973). The Physics of Subatomic Particles (PDF).
  38. ^ S. Wolfram (1974). Introduction to the Weak Interaction (PDF). Vol. 1.
  39. ^ S. Wolfram (1974). Introduction to the Weak Interaction (PDF). Vol. 2.
  40. ^ Stephen Wolfram: Articles on Particle Physics
  41. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.41.1581
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  42. ^ "About Stephen Wolfram". www.stephenwolfram.com. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
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  49. ISSN 0891-2513
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  50. ^ "You don't understand "ordinary people"". Retrieved 2 March 2018.
  51. ^ W. Daniel Hillis (February 1989). "Richard Feynman and The Connection Machine". Physics Today. Archived from the original on 28 July 2009. Retrieved 3 November 2006. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  52. ^ Pines, David (1987). Emerging Syntheses in Science: Proceedings of the Founding Workshops of the Santa Fe Institute (PDF). Menlo Park, Calif.: Addison-Wesley. pp. 183–190.
  53. ^ a b "The Man Who Cracked The Code to Everything". Wired. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  54. PMID 17816011
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  55. ^ a b Levy, Steven (1 June 2002). "The Man Who Cracked The Code to Everything..." Wired.com. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
  56. ^ Bio, ConradWolfram.com.
  57. ^ "Stephen Wolfram". nndb.com. Retrieved 11 May 2009.
  58. ISBN 1579550088
  59. ^ TED (2010): Stephen Wolfram: Scientist, Inventor. Online (accessed 19 January 2010).
  60. ^ Rucker, Rudy (2003). "A Review of NKS". The Mathematical Association of America. 10: 851–861.
  61. MR 1940227
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  62. ^ http://www.complex-systems.com/pdf/15-1-1.pdf
  63. ^ Wolfram, Stephen (5 March 2009). "Wolfram|Alpha Is Coming!". Wolfram blog. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
  64. ^ "Announcing Wolfram|Alpha Pro". Wolfram|Alpha blog. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  65. ^ Johnson, Bobbie (9 March 2009). "British search engine 'could rival Google'". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
  66. ^ Wolfram|Alpha: Searching for Truth by Rudy Rucker, H+ Magazine, 6 April 2009.
  67. ^ "Answering your questions with Bing and Wolfram Alpha". "Microsoft's Bing blog". Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  68. ^ Stephen Wolfram Talks Bing Partnership, Software Strategy, and the Future of Knowledge Computing by Gregory T. Huang, Xconomy, 5 January 2010.
  69. ^ "iPhone features". Apple. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  70. ^ "Popular Science columnist earns prestigious American Chemical Society award". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 25 December 2018.
  71. ^ Wolfram Language reference page Retrieved on 14 May 2014
  72. ^ Slate's article Stephen Wolfram's New Programming Language: He Can Make The World Computable, 6 March 2014. Retrieved on 14 May 2014.
  73. ^ What Tech Makes Possible in EDU Research, SXSW Panelpicker.
  74. ^ New in the Wolfram Language: Cryptography, 15 May 2015, by Christopher Wolfram, Connectivity Group
  75. ^ Stephen Wolfram - I Wrote a Book — To Teach the Wolfram Language
  76. ^ "Machine Learning for Middle Schoolers—Stephen Wolfram". blog.stephenwolfram.com. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
  77. ^ "Stephen Wolfram". Twitter. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
  78. ^ Stephen, Wolfram. "The Personal Analytics of My Life". Wired. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  79. ^ How Arrival's Designers Crafted a Mesmerizing Language, Margaret Rhodes, Wired, 16 November 2016.
  80. ^ "Dissecting the alien language in 'Arrival'". Engadget. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  81. ^ "Quick, How Might the Alien Spacecraft Work?—Stephen Wolfram". blog.stephenwolfram.com. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  82. ^ ‘Idea Makers’ tackles scientific thinkers’ big ideas and personal lives / Human side of science emphasized in new book by Tom Siegfried, Science News, 13 August 2016.
  83. ^ Stephen Wolfram Aims to Democratize His Software by Steve Lohr, The New York Times, 14 December 2015.

External links

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