Toothpaste
Toothpaste is a paste or gel
Usefulness
Toothpastes are generally useful to maintain dental health. Toothpastes containing fluoride are effective at preventing tooth decay.[2][5][6] Toothpastes may also help to control and remove plaque build-up, promoting healthy gums. A 2016 systematic review indicated that using toothpaste when brushing the teeth does not necessarily impact the level of plaque removal.[7] However, the active ingredients in toothpastes are able to prevent dental diseases with regular use.[8]
Ingredients
Toothpastes are derived from a variety of components, the three main ones being abrasives, fluoride, and detergent.
Abrasives
Abrasives constitute 8-20% of a typical toothpaste.
After the
Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists' offices, also cause a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed "polishing" action. The abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its
Fluorides
Much of the toothpaste sold in the United States has 1,000 to 1,100 parts per million fluoride. In European countries, such as the UK or Greece, the fluoride content is often higher; a sodium fluoride content of 0.312% w/w (1,450
Surfactants
Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or related surfactants (detergents). SLS is found in many other personal care products as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power.[15]
Other components
Antibacterial agents
The stannous (
Flavorants
Toothpaste comes in a variety of
. Alternatively, unflavored toothpastes exist.Remineralizing agents
Chemical repair (remineralization) of early tooth decay is promoted naturally by saliva.[39] However, this process can be enhanced by various remineralisation agents.[40] Fluoride promotes remineralization, but is limited by bioavailable calcium.[41] Casein phosphopeptide stabilised amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP-ACP) is a toothpaste ingredient containing bioavailable calcium that has been widely researched to be the most clinically effective remineralization agent that enhances the action of saliva and fluoride.[42][43][44][45] Peptide-based systems, hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and a variety of calcium phosphates have been advocated as remineralization agents; however, more clinical evidence is required to substantiate their effectiveness.[45]
Miscellaneous components
Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as
Sodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar.[citation needed]
Chlorohexidine mouthwash has been popular for its positive effect on controlling plaque and gingivitis,[50] however, a systemic review studied the effects of chlorohexidine toothpastes and found insufficient evidence to support its use, tooth surface discoloration was observed as a side effect upon using it, which is considered a negative side effect that can affect patients' compliance.[51]
Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye or caustic soda, is listed as an inactive ingredient in some toothpaste, for example Colgate Total.
Xylitol
A systematic review reported two out of ten studies by the same authors on the same population showed toothpastes with xylitol as an ingredient were more effective at preventing dental caries in permanent teeth of children than toothpastes containing fluoride alone. Furthermore, xylitol has not been found to cause any harmful effects. However, further investigation into the efficacy of toothpastes containing xylitol is required as the currently available studies are of low quality and high risk of bias.[52]
Safety
Fluoride
Fluoride-containing toothpaste can be acutely toxic if swallowed in large amounts,[53][54] but instances are exceedingly rare and result from prolonged and excessive use of toothpaste (i.e. several tubes per week).[55] Approximately 15 mg/kg body weight is the acute lethal dose, even though as small amount as 5 mg/kg may be fatal to some children.[56]
The risk of using fluoride is low enough that the use of full-strength toothpaste (1350–1500 ppm fluoride) is advised for all ages. However, smaller volumes are used for young children, for example, a smear of toothpaste until three years old.[54] A major concern of dental fluorosis is for children under 12 months ingesting excessive fluoride through toothpaste. Nausea and vomiting are also problems which might arise with topical fluoride ingestion.[56]
Diethylene glycol
The inclusion of sweet-tasting but toxic diethylene glycol in Chinese-made toothpaste led to a recall in 2007 involving multiple toothpaste brands in several nations.[57] The world outcry made Chinese officials ban the practice of using diethylene glycol in toothpaste.[58]
Triclosan
Reports have suggested triclosan, an active ingredient in many kinds of toothpastes, can combine with chlorine in tap water to form chloroform.[59] An animal study revealed the chemical might modify hormone regulation, and many other lab researches proved bacteria might be able to develop resistance to triclosan in a way which can help them to resist antibiotics also.[60]
Polyethylene glycol – PEG
PEG is a common ingredient in some of the formulas of toothpastes; it is a hydrophilic polymer that acts as a dispersant in toothpastes. Also, it is used in many cosmetic and pharmaceutical formulas, for example: ointments, osmotic laxatives, some of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, other medications and household products.[61] However, 37 cases of PEG hypersensitivity (delayed and immediate) to PEG-containing substances have been reported since 1977,[62] suggesting that they have unrecognized allergenic potential.[62]
Miscellaneous issues and debates
With the exception of toothpaste intended to be used on pets such as dogs and cats, and toothpaste used by
Alteration of taste perception
After using toothpaste, orange juice and other fruit juices are known to have an unpleasant taste if consumed shortly afterwards. Sodium lauryl sulfate, used as a surfactant in toothpaste, alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste.[68] Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.[citation needed]
Whitening toothpastes
Many toothpastes make whitening claims. Abrasion is the principal action way that they remove stains: this is also true for toothpastes that are not marketing as whitening.
Herbal and natural toothpastes
Herbal toothpastes are marketed to consumers who wish to avoid some of the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. The ingredients found in so-called natural toothpastes vary widely but often include
A 2020 meta-analysis showed some evidence for the efficacy of herbal toothpaste, albeit from poor quality studies.[37] According to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.[73]
Charcoal has also been incorporated in toothpaste formulas; however, there is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness, and the American Dental Association does not recommend its use.[69]
Government regulation
In the United States toothpaste is regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a cosmetic, except for ingredients with a medical purpose, such as fluoride, which are regulated as drugs.[74] Drugs require scientific studies and FDA approval in order to be legally marketed in the United States, but cosmetic ingredients do not require pre-approval, except for color additives. The FDA does have labelling and requirements and bans certain ingredients.[75]
Striped toothpaste
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2017) |
Striped toothpaste was invented by Leonard Marraffino in 1955. The patent (US patent 2,789,731, issued 1957) was subsequently sold to Unilever, who marketed the novelty under the Stripe brand-name in the early 1960s. This was followed by the introduction of the Signal brand in Europe in 1965 (UK patent 813,514). Although Stripe was initially very successful, it never again achieved the 8% market share that it cornered during its second year.
Marraffino's design, which remains in use for single-color stripes, is simple. The main material, usually white, sits at the crimp end of the toothpaste tube and makes up most of its bulk. A thin pipe, through which that carrier material will flow, descends from the nozzle to it. The stripe-material (this was red in Stripe) fills the gap between the carrier material and the top of the tube. The two materials are not in separate compartments, but they are sufficiently viscous that they will not mix. When pressure is applied to the toothpaste tube, the main material squeezes down the thin pipe to the nozzle. Simultaneously, the pressure applied to the main material causes pressure to be forwarded to the stripe material, which thereby issues out through small holes (in the side of the pipe) onto the main carrier material as it is passing those holes.
In 1990, Colgate-Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO 4,969,767) for two differently colored stripes. In this scheme, the inner pipe has a cone-shaped plastic guard around it, and about halfway up its length. Between the guard and the nozzle-end of the tube is a space for the material for one color, which issues out of holes in the pipe. On the other side of the guard is space for second stripe-material, which has its own set of holes.
In 2016, Colgate-Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO U.S. patent 20,160,228,347) for suitable sorts of differently colored toothpastes to be filled directly into tubes to produce a striped mix without any separate compartments. This required adjustment of the different components' behavior (rheology) so that stripes are produced when the tube is squeezed.[76]
Striped toothpaste should not be confused with layered toothpaste. Layered toothpaste requires a multi-chamber design (e.g. USPTO 5,020,694), in which two or three layers extrude out of the nozzle. This scheme, like that of pump dispensers (USPTO 4,461,403), is more complicated (and thus, more expensive to manufacture) than either the Marraffino design or the Colgate designs.
The iconic depiction of a wave-shaped blob of toothpaste sitting on a toothbrush is called a "nurdle".[77]
History
Early toothpastes
Since 5000 BC, the
Tooth powder
Tooth powders for use with toothbrushes came into general use in the 19th century in Britain. Most were homemade, with chalk, pulverized brick, or salt as ingredients. An 1866 Home Encyclopedia recommended pulverized charcoal, and cautioned that many patented tooth powders that were commercially marketed did more harm than good.
Modern toothpaste
An 18th-century American and British toothpaste recipe called for burned bread. Another formula around this time called for dragon's blood (a resin), cinnamon, and burned alum.[citation needed]
In 1873 the Colgate company began the mass production of aromatic toothpaste in jars.[81]
By 1900, a paste made of
Together with
In 1980, the Japanese company, Sangi Co., Ltd., launched APADENT, the world's first remineralizing toothpaste to use a nano-form of hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, rather than fluoride, to remineralize areas of mineral loss below the surface of tooth enamel (incipient caries lesions). After many years of laboratory experiments and field trials,[87] its hydroxyapatite ingredient was approved as an active anti-caries agent by the Japanese Ministry of Health in 1993, and given the name Medical Hydroxyapatite to distinguish it from other forms of hydroxyapatite used in toothpaste, such as dental abrasives.
In 2006,
Dispensing
Toothpaste is usually dispensed via a collapsible tube or with a more rigid pump. Several traditional and innovative designs have been developed.[89] The dispenser must be matched to the flow properties of the toothpaste.[90]
In 1880, Doctor
See also
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Further reading
- Hartman M (March 16, 2018). "I've always wondered: how mint flavoring became associated with clean teeth". I've Always Wondered (story series). Marketplace. American Public Media. Retrieved March 16, 2018. On the history of toothpaste.
- Duhigg C (2012). "Chapter 2: The Craving Brain: How to Create New Habits: Part I". The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business. New York: Random House. OCLC 731918383. On the history of the marketing of toothpaste.