Uprisings led by women
Women-led uprisings are mass protests that are initiated by women as an act of resistance or rebellion in defiance of an established government. A protest is a statement or action taken part to express disapproval of or object an authority, most commonly led in order to influence public opinion or government policy. They range from village food riots against imposed taxes to protests that initiated the Russian Revolution.
Some women-led mass protests deliberately set out to emphasise the gender (or gender role) of the organisers and participants: for example, the
Early history
The creation of the first human societies
Studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers show that their strong sense of moral community is maintained by autonomous individuals who constantly resist any form of personal domination. In fact, many hunter-gatherers are so egalitarian and communistic that even a non-Marxist anthropologist like Christopher Boehm argues that hunter-gatherer societies – the first human societies – must have originated in uprisings against dominant males.[4]
Chris Knight, and other anthropologists influenced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, have theorised that these uprisings were led by women looking for collective support to ease their childcare burdens.[5][6][7] They have used a wide range of evidence from anthropology, primatology, mythic narratives, evolutionary biology and archaeology. Some Marxists have dismissed these ideas.[8] However, although the idea of women-led uprisings creating the first societies is controversial, a number of highly respected anthropologists have taken the thesis seriously. (Mary Douglas, Robin Dunbar, David Lewis-Williams, Caroline Humphrey, Marilyn Strathern, Clive Gamble, Keith Hart and Chris Stringer have all made favourable comments about Knight's work.[9][10][11])
Boudica
Boudica was a queen of the British Celtic Iceni tribe who led an uprising against the conquering forces of the Roman Empire in AD 60 or 61. She died shortly after its failure and was said to have poisoned herself. She is considered a British folk hero.[12]
17th and 18th century
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Food riots
E. P. Thompson's classic article "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the 18th Century" emphasised women's role in many food riots. He argued that the rioters insisted on the idea of a moral community that was obliged to feed them and their families. As one contemporary commentator wrote: "Women are more disposed to be mutinous ... [and] in all public tumults they are foremost in violence and ferocity."[13]
John Bohstedt later argued that Thompson had exaggerated women's role in food riots. Thompson responded by forcefully rejecting Bohstedt's criticism.[14][15][16] While it is not possible to know the exact level of women's involvement in 18th century food riots, it appears that, at the very least, women led or initiated a significant minority of such riots and they participated in many more. Women participated more fully in food riots than they had in earlier anti-impressment riots of 1747, in which they defended community interest and enforced community morality. These riots of revolution and resistance opened up opportunities for women to take political action as social and economic influencers, and not just as a republican's wife or a mother.[17] He[who?] indicates that women's new assertiveness had something to do with the weakening of the patriarchal control of women as feudalism declined and market relations expanded.
Men and women participated in food riots in Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany (where contemporary reports claimed that women initiated many riots). Dutch tax riots in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were more numerous and often more violent, with participants of both lower and lower-middle classes, whereas food riots drew only lower-class participants. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, at least 26 riots and 50 demonstrations involved women, with 10 being chiefly under their control. Women did the cooking and purchased foodstuffs for their families; therefore, they were the first parties to be confronted with scarcities of food and high prices. In doing so, women generally controlled much of the household finances. Another reason for their participation is due to the fact that food riots typically started in market places near shops and mills, which is where women gathered the most.
One of the most prominent tax riots in 1616 has even gone on record as "the Women's Revolt of Delft".[18] Women also conducted nearly a third of food riots during the American Revolution[19][20][21][22][23] despite the fact that they were excluded from the vote, unqualified to serve as jurors at courts and law, and were essentially politically disabled by their dependent status.[17] It made a difference that Americans knew that women figured prominently in food riots in England and Europe, and it made a difference that ideas of equity, neighborly dealing, and charity informed American women's daily lives in the colonial period. Roughly 100 women marched a "Female Riot" and took to the streets in July 1777 insisting on their right to enforce equitable exchange.[17]
19th century
French Revolution
Women were especially prominent in food riots in French marketplaces (although men dominated those in the countryside).[24][25] The most momentous French food riot was the Women's March on Versailles. This occurred in October 1789, when the market women of Paris began calling the men 'cowards' and declaring: 'We will take over!' The women proceeded to march to Versailles with soldiers following them. The crowd then forced the King to return to Paris where, three years later, women were again major participants in the demonstrations that led to the abolition of the monarchy. A police inspector said in 1793: "It is mainly the women who are stirred up, women who in turn communicate all their frenzy to the men, heating them up with their seditious propositions and stimulating the most violent effervescence."[26][27][28][29][30]
Meanwhile, women in the countryside initiated 'counter-revolutionary' protests against the new government's policies of the repression of the Church and the conscription of male peasants into the army.[31][32]
During the French Revolution, women led the fight for religion. Their fight would lead the way for the feminization of religions. Women felt that they were responsible for maintaining a spiritual balance within their family. They fought harder than their male counterparts, sometimes invoking violent and illegal actions to get their voices heard. If women were arrested, the men in their lives would downplay the damage they could do, and women were seen as more hysterical and vulnerable as a whole, so society generally thought little of their violent and illegal actions. But if a woman refused or avoided taking part in petitions or marches, she would be shamed until guilted into taking part.[33]
Women during the French Revolution also fought for their own rights. Aristocratic women were not as likely to partake in the activities that could ruin their family and/or their chance of inheriting the family fortune (or what she would receive), so they were reluctant to participate. Working class women also faced this dilemma, but because they were already suppressed, the good of what they could achieve outweighed the loss of family pride and/or fortune. Louis XVI had allowed all people who paid taxes to vote, but since women could not pay taxes, they could not vote. While the Third Estate made rules, women would present their opinions through pamphlets and petitions to let the Third Estate know what they wanted. Pétition des femmes du Tiers-Etat au Roi stated that women wanted education to go beyond French and Latin for church, more jobs to be available to women, and to raise the maximum pay of 5–6 sous. Motion en Faveur du Sexe and Discours préliminaire de la pauvre Javotte focused on dowries and marriage. In the working class, finding a job was hard enough for men, harder for women, and saving enough money to get married was almost impossible. Women did not want to have to pay a dowry to get married; this applied only in the Third Estate. The Rights of Woman by Olympe de Gouges was a complete pamphlet that stated all the rights that women should have. It was copied almost word for word from the Declaration of the Rights of Man, but applied to women. Another booklet, Griefs et plaintes des femmes mal mariées, criticised marriage laws that entailed women submitting to men, and demanded the legalization of divorce.
Within the bourgeoisie, Madame Etta Palm van Aelder was a leading figure in fighting for women's rights. She demanded the equal right to education, political freedom, divorce and the legal freedom of women of age 21 and over. While political freedom would not be gained until after the Revolution, all of van Aelder's other demands would be met in some way. In August 1792, women aged 21 and above were given legal freedom from their parents. In September 1792, women were granted the right to divorce and the Law of 1794 eased the divorce process. Educational programs were advanced and allowed women to be trained for careers, but they still did not obtain equality. Female teachers were paid less than males and primary school classes were divided by gender. After the advancements and improvements in the educational system, women were not much better off than before.[34]
R. B. Rose argues that despite the efforts of women during the Revolution, little changed. The Revolution was a revolution for the men, and a place of chaos for the women. The French Revolutionary Constitution of 1791 allowed women to be labeled as citizens, but nothing else. They did not have voting rights or the ability to run for office. The Napoleonic Code of 1804 suppressed wives into submission to their husbands, reversing all equality demands made during the Revolution. Women still could not own land because they could not legally sign any contract, putting the land into the hands of her closest male relative.[35]
Franco-Prussian War
During the Franco-Prussian War of 1871, women were prominent in preventing the army from moving their cannons from Paris, an event which helped spark the Paris Commune.[36]
20th century
British women's suffrage movement
During the early twentieth century, women's protests for the right to vote became particularly
World War I
During
Women participated in and organised several food riots that broke out in North America during the early twentieth century.[48] Women also led food riots in Japan and non-belligerent Spain. Women's protests against high food prices spread across Spain in both 1913 and 1918. In Barcelona, in 1918, women used the slogan: 'In the name of humanity, all women take to the streets!' They organised repeated demonstrations and attacked shops, warehouses, government offices and music halls. Women also staged food riots during the Spanish Civil War.[49]
Russian Revolution
As
Revolts against British colonialism
Women were prominent in various revolts in the colonial and ex-colonial world. One of the most notable in Africa was the
During the late 1940s, the Abeokuta Women's Revolt protested the Nigerian colonial government's imposition of new taxes upon women. Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti led mass protests of women outside the palace of the local ruler.
In India, the Queen or Rani of Jhansi was one of the leading figures of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and became a symbol of resistance to the British Raj for Indian nationalists.
United States civil rights movement
It was a boycott of segregated buses by African-American women that sparked the civil rights movement in 1955. This case inspired activists across the world to make a change and fight oppression.[63]
American women increasingly rejected commonplace patriarchal family structures and sexual repression in the 1960s, influencing the sexual revolution, protests for equal pay, and a greater visibility of women in American culture.[64][65] The revived feminist movement then helped transform gender roles in the following decades. Stormé DeLarverie, a biracial butch lesbian activist, is credited with inciting the Stonewall uprising in New York City in 1969, a major turning point in the 1960s–1970s gay liberation movement.[66]
United Kingdom
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Women were also at the forefront of many working class struggles in the 1970s and 1980s. In the British Isles, women's protests and leadership were significant during The Troubles in Northern Ireland, during the Grunwick dispute and during the miners' strike.[67][68]
Iran
For decades, Iranian women struggled with basic human rights and oppression due to traditional religious affiliations and political attributes. Their Islamic beliefs regarding gender equality concealed by higher power authorities and the domination of man towards
Significant changes in basic human rights and the oppression of Iranian women has been continuing since 1990s and it has been progressing notably until today with
21st century
Women continue to play a prominent role in many food riots - for example, in 2008 over 1,000 women protested the Peruvian government's response to rising food prices.[48]
On January 20, 2017, the day after Donald Trump was inaugurated as the 45th US president, women, men, and children marched in protest of Trump and to promote solidarity with other women in order to resist women's oppression and mistreatment. Over 680 marches throughout the US and in more than 68 countries around the world were held as part of the Women's March. More than 1,000,000 people participated in the "flagship march" in Washington D.C.[70]
Rojava Revolution
Northern
The novel Revolution in Rojava: Democratic Autonomy and Women's Liberation in Syrian Kurdistan documents the Kurdish women and how they were and still are oppressed. As Kurds, they were denied basic rights, in many cases even citizenship; and as women they were trapped in patriarchal domination.[71] The Kurdish women's movement seeks to overcome the alienation of Kurdish women. The fight for women's rights has always been a part of Kurdish history. One of the first signs of revolution in Rojava was the election of Hêvî Îbrahîm to the post of the prime minister in February 2014.[72]
Indeed, many women were assuming leadership positions. Asya Abdullah is regarded to be one of the most radical and effective revolutionaries in the world today. She has been the driving force in the battle for Kurdish freedom.[73] She wants women around the world to become more aware of their own fight.
With this transformation, women also began getting involved with security and military roles. In 2012, women from the PYD, the
Women in the
Out of the conflict of the popular uprising in
Zhina Amini protests
Although the protests have not been as deadly as those in 2019 (when more than 1,500 were killed),[80] they have been "nationwide, spread across social classes, universities, the streets [and] schools", and called the "biggest challenge" to the government of Iran since the Islamic Revolution in 1979.[81] as of 27 December 2022[update] at least 476 people, including 64 minors, had been killed as a result of the government's intervention in the protests;[a] an estimated 18,480 have been arrested[b] throughout at least 134 cities and towns, and at 132 universities.[c][83][84]
Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei dismissed the widespread unrest not only as "riots" but also as a "hybrid war" caused by foreign states and dissidents abroad.[85][86][71] Women, including schoolchildren, have played a key role in the demonstrations, with many removing their hijab in solidarity with Amini.[87] In addition to demands for increased rights for women, the protests have demanded the overthrow of the Islamic Republic, setting them apart from previous major protest movements in Iran, which have focused on election results or economic woes.[88]
See also
- International Women's Day
- Women's March on Versailles
- The Bread and Roses strike by immigrant textile workers in Lawrence, Massachusettsin 1912 was led to a large extent by women.
- Women's Social and Political Union
- February Revolution
- Huda Sha'arawi
- Rosa Parks
- Women Against Pit Closures
- Origins of society
- List of food riots
- List of women who led a revolt or rebellion
- Mud March (suffragists)
- Abolition Riot of 1836
- Jenny Geddes
- Women in the decolonisation of Africa
Notes
- ^ according to the non-profit organization Iran Human Rights[82]
- ^ according to HRANA, as of 22 December
- ^ according to HRANA as of 4 November
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- ^ the Military, War and Gender in Twentieth Century Germany, Ch.4
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- ^ "Fresh protests erupt in Iran's universities and Kurdish region". The Guardian. 6 November 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
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- ^ "Iran lawmakers demand severe punishment for 'rioters' as protests rage". Reuters. 6 November 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
- ^ Leonhardt, David. "Iran's Ferocious Dissent". The New York Times.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar (3 October 2022). "Iran's Khamenei blames Israel, US in first comments on protests". Aljazeera. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
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- ^ Vaux-Montagny, Nicolas (8 January 2023). "Marches in Europe Support Iranian Protests". Time. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
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ignored (help) - ^ "Cleric killed in restive Iranian city, protests rage on". Reuters. 3 November 2022. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
Further reading
- Thompson, E. P. Customs in Common.
- Smith, Barbara Clark (1994). "Food Rioters and the American Revolution". The William and Mary Quarterly. 51 (1): 3–38. JSTOR 2947003– via JSTOR.
- Hufton, Olwen H. (1 January 1992). Women and the Limits of Citizenship in the French Revolution. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6837-8.
- Applewhite, Harriet; Levy, Darlene. Women and Politics in the Age of Democratic Revolution.
- Kaplan, Temma. "Women and Communal Strikes in the Crisis of 1917–1922". In Bridenthal, Renate (ed.). Becoming Visible, Women in European History (1987 ed.). pp. 429–450.
- Applewhite, Harriet; Levy, Darlene (1987). "Women and Political Revolution in Paris". In Bridenthal, Renate (ed.). Becoming Visible, Women in European History (1987 ed.). Houghton Mifflin. pp. 279–308. OCLC 15714486. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
- Daniel, Ute (November 1997). The War from Within: German Women in the First World War. Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85973-147-5.
- Allen, Keith (2003). "Food and the German Home-Front". In Braybon, Gail (ed.). Evidence, History and the Great War. Berghahn Books. pp. 172–197. ISBN 978-1-57181-801-0.
- Ortaggi, Simonetta (2003). "Italian Women During the Great War". In Braybon, Gail (ed.). Evidence, History and the Great War. Berghahn Books. pp. 216–238. JSTOR j.ctt9qd8db.15. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
- Engel, Barbara Alpern (December 1997). "Subsistence Riots in Russia during World War One". Journal of Modern History. 69 (4): 696–721. S2CID 54573745.
- Kaplan, Temma (1 April 1982). "Female Consciousness and Collective Action: The Case of Barcelona, 1910–1918". Signs. 7 (3): 545–566. S2CID 144602956.
- Chatterjee, Choi (2002). Celebrating Women; Gender, Festival, Culture and Bolshevik Ideology. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-4178-1.
- Viola, Lynne (1986). "Babi Bunty and Peasant Women's Protests during Collectivisation". Russian Review. 45 (1): 23–42. JSTOR 129400.
- Kuumba, M. Bahati (2001). Gender and Social Movements. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0188-3.
- Knight, Chris. Solidarity and Sex.
- Knight, Chris; Power, Camilla; Watts, Ian (April 1995). "The Human Symbolic Revolution" (PDF). Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 5 (1): 75–114. S2CID 54701302. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2013-09-15.