User:Mangwanani/History

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History

By the Middle Ages, there was a Bantu civilization in the region, as evidenced by ruins at

Ndebele, who arrived from south of the Limpopo and forced them to pay tribute and concentrate in northern Zimbabwe. In the 1880s, the British arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa Company. In 1898, the name Southern Rhodesia was adopted.[2]

Colonial era (1888–1965)

Main articles: Southern Rhodesia and Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
Matabeleland in the 1800s.

In 1888, British

Rhodesia' for the territory of Zambesia, in honor of Cecil Rhodes. In 1898 'Southern Rhodesia' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi,[6] which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia
.

The Shona staged unsuccessful revolts (known as Chimurenga) against encroachment upon their lands, by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897.[7] Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating European settlement en masse which led to land distribution disproportionately favouring Europeans, displacing the Shona, Ndebele, and other indigenous peoples.

Southern Rhodesia became a

Axis forces in Italian East Africa
.

In 1953, in the face of African opposition,

Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The United Kingdom deemed this an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. The white-minority government declared itself a "republic" in 1970. A civil war ensued, with Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU and Robert Mugabe's ZANU using assistance from the governments of Zambia and Mozambique. Although Smith's declaration was not recognized by the United Kingdom nor any other significant power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation 'Southern', and claimed nation status as the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970.[9][10]

UDI and civil war (1965–1979)

Main articles: Rhodesia, Rhodesian Bush War, Zimbabwe Rhodesia, and Lancaster House Agreement

[[:Image:Udi2-rho.jpg|thumb|

Unilateral Declaration of Independence
on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet watching.]]

After the

guerrilla fighting against Smith's UDI government intensified. As a result, the Smith government opened negotiations with the leaders of the Patriotic Fronts—Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by Robert Mugabe, and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), led by Joshua Nkomo
.

[[:Image:Lancaster-House-Agreement.png|thumb|left|Bishop

Lord Peter Carrington
.]] In March 1978, with his regime near the brink of collapse, Smith signed an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop
elections were held in April 1979. The United African National Council (UANC) party won a majority in this election. On 1 June 1979, the leader of UANC, Abel Muzorewa, became the country's prime minister and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The internal settlement left control of the country's police, security forces, civil service, and judiciary in white hands. It assured whites of about one-third of the seats in parliament. It was essentially a power-sharing arrangement which did not amount to majority rule.[13] However, on June 12, the United States Senate
voted to end economic sanctions against Zimbabwe Rhodesia.

Following the

Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom, chaired the conference.[14] The conference took place from 10 September–15 December 1979 with 47 plenary sessions. On 1 December 1979, delegations from the British and Rhodesian governments and the Patriotic Front signed the Lancaster House Agreement, ending the civil war.[15]

Independence (1980–1999)

Main article: Gukurahundi
See also: History of Zimbabwe

Britain's

elections of February 1980, Mugabe and his ZANU won a landslide victory.[16]

There was however opposition to a Shona win in

ZANLA fought for two days.[17]

In February 1981 there was a second uprising, which spread to Glenville and also to Connemara in the Midlands. ZIPRA troops in other parts of Matabeleland headed for Bulawayo to join the battle, and ex-Rhodesian units had to come in to stop the fighting. Over 300 people were killed.

These uprisings led to what has become known as Gukurahundi (

Fifth Brigade to crush any resistance in Matabeleland. It has been estimated that 20,000 Matabele were murdered and buried in mass-graves which they were forced to dig themselves and hundreds of others were allegedly tortured.[19] The violence ended after ZANU and ZAPU reached a unity agreement in 1988 that merged the two parties, creating ZANU-PF.[20][21]

Elections in March 1990 resulted in another victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. Election observers estimated voter turnout at only 54% and found the campaign neither free nor fair.[22][23]

During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers also criticised the government during this time. In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.

AIDS virus.[26]

Decline (1999–present)

Land issues, which the liberation movement had promised to solve, re-emerged as the main issue for the

Government of Zimbabwe).[27] Mugabe began to redistribute land
to blacks in 2000 with a compulsory land redistribution. Charges that the programme as a whole is designed to reward loyal Mugabe deputies have persisted in Zimbabwe since the beginning of the process.

The legality and constitutionality of the process has regularly been challenged in the Zimbabwean High and Supreme Courts; however, the policing agencies have rarely acted in accordance with court rulings on these matters. The chaotic implementation of the land reform led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, traditionally the country's leading export producing sector.[28] Mining and tourism have surpassed agriculture. As a result, Zimbabwe is experiencing a severe hard-currency shortage, which has led to hyperinflation and chronic shortages in imported fuel and consumer goods. In 2002, Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations on charges of human rights abuses during the land redistribution and of election tampering.[29]

Following elections in 2005, the government initiated "Operation Murambatsvina", a purported effort to crack down on illegal markets and homes that had seen slums emerge in towns and cities. This action has been widely condemned by opposition and international figures, who charge that it has left a substantial section of urban poor homeless. The Zimbabwe government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population although they have yet to deliver any new housing for the forcibly removed people.[30]

A map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008.

Zimbabwe's current economic and food crisis, described by some observers as the country's worst humanitarian crisis since independence, has been attributed in varying degrees, to a drought affecting the entire region, the

AIDS epidemic, and the government's price controls and land reforms.[31]

Life expectancy at birth for males in Zimbabwe has dramatically declined since 1990 from 60 to 37, among the lowest in the world. Life expectancy for females is even lower at 34 years.[32] Concurrently, the infant mortality rate has climbed from 53 to 81 deaths per 1,000 live births in the same period. Currently, 1.8 million Zimbabweans live with HIV.

On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a

election
were withheld for several weeks, following which it was generally acknowledged that the MDC had achieved a significant majority of seats. However, Mugabe retained control and has not conceded the election results that would otherwise put him out of power.

In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public health (with a major

Marange became the subject of international attention as more than 80 people were killed by the military [34]and the World Diamond Council called for a clampdown on smuggling.[35]

  1. ISBN 978-1405107518. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help
    )
  2. ^ So Who Was Shaka Zulu- Really? Africa Stage
  3. ^ Hensman, Howard. Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career. Page 106–107.
  4. ^ Parsons, Neil. A New History of Southern Africa, Second Edition, 1993. London: Macmillan. Pages 178–181.
  5. ^ Bryce, James. Impressions of South Africa. Page 170.
  6. ^ Gray, J. A. (1956). "A Country in Search of a Name." The Northern Rhodesia Journal III (1) (1956). Page 78.
  7. ^ Palamarek, Ernie. Hatari. Page 132.
  8. ^ Parsons (1993). Page 292.
  9. ^ Judd, Denis. Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present. Page 372.
  10. ^ Parsons (1993). Pages 318–320.
  11. ^ "Malawi political background".
  12. ^ Zambia political background NationsEncyclopedia.com, 2003
  13. ^ 1 June 1979 BBC News
  14. ^ Chung, Fay. Re-living the Second Chimurenga: memories from the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe, Preben (INT) Kaarsholm. Page 242.
  15. ^ Preston, Matthew. Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective. Page 25
  16. ^ George M. Houser. "Letter by George M. Houser, Executive Director of the American Committee on Africa (ACOA), on the 1980 independence election in Rhodesia". Retrieved 2007-12-01.
  17. ^ NYAROTA SPEAKS: The Zimbabwe Times
  18. ^ Nyarota, Geoffrey. Against the Grain. Page 134.
  19. ^ "Matabeleland: Its Struggle for National Legitimacy, and the Relevance of this in the 2008 Election". Heinrich Böll Stiftung. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
  20. ^ "Chronology of Zimbabwe". badley.info. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
  21. ^ "Timeline: Zimbabwe". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
  22. ^ "Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections". EISA. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
  23. ^ "VOTING FOR DEMOCRACY: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe". Jonathon M. Moyo/University of Zimbabwe. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
  24. About.com
    .
  25. ^ "Zimbabwe: ZANU PF hegemony and its breakdown (1990–1999)". EISA. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
  26. ^ "History of Zimbabwe". Infoplease.
  27. ^ "Who owns the land?". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-12-07.
  28. KiB
    )    .
  29. ^ Zimbabwe suspended indefinitely from Commonwealth, HumanRightsFirst.org, 8 December 2003
  30. ^ Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies, Amnesty International, 9 August 2006
  31. ^ Crisis profile: Zimbabwe's humanitarian situation, July 26, 2005. AlertNet.
  32. ^ "Zimbabwe Life Expectancy Lowest In The World", Public Health News, 10 April, 2006
  33. ^ Cite error: The named reference Carter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  34. ^ "Government looking for land for mass burial, after killing 78 miners". SW Radio Africa via ZWnews. 11 Dec 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-12.
  35. ^ "Diamond Industry Calls for Clampdown on Zimbabwe Smuggling". Rapaport. 12 Oct 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-12.
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