Yugambeh people
Yugara, Gidhabal, Bundjalung |
Person | Mibunn |
---|
The Yugambeh (
Europeans arrived within their proximity in the 1820s, before formally entering Yugambeh territory c.1842.[a] Their arrival displaced Yugambeh groups,[14] and conflict between both sides soon followed throughout the 1850/60s[17] By the 20th century, they were being forced onto missions[18][19] and reserves[20] despite local resistance.[19][18] Other Yugambeh people found refuge in the mountains or gained employment among the Europeans.[13] The last of the missions/reserves in the area closed in 1948[21] and 1951, though people continued to occupy them.[20] Throughout the 70s-90s, the Yugambeh founded organisations and businesses in culture/language,[22] housing and community care,[23] wildlife and land preservation,[24] and tourism.[25] It is estimated there were between 1,500 and 2,000 Aboriginal people in the watersheds of the Logan, Albert, Coomera and Nerang before the 1850s.[26] The 2016 Australian census records 12,315 Aboriginal people in the four local government areas,[27][28][29][30] a portion of these are non-Yugambeh Aboriginal peoples who have moved into the area for work,[20] or as a result of forced removals.[19]
Name and etymology
Yugambeh is the traditional language term for the Aboriginal people that inhabit the territory between the
Bundjalung misnomer
Yugambeh descendants state that the name Bundjalung, applied by Europeans and adjacent peoples, is a
Other misnomers
There are terms used for more than one group, like "Minyangbal", – those who say minyang "what", which is used to refer to the Yugambeh,
Language
The Yugambeh language (also termed the Mibin dialects
The northern dialects represent a distinct homogenous linguistic group,
Dialects
The particular number of dialects (and their degree of mutual intelligibility) are differently described depending on the source.
- According to Terry Crowley, the branch has 7 dialects.[48][55]
- Margaret Sharpe, drawing on Crowley, additionally includes the Geynyan dialect.[40]
- Anthony Jefferies, also drawing on Crowley, refers to Yugam(beh), Ngarangwal/Ngarahkwal, Nganduwal, and Minyungbal of Byron, as the 'Mibin Dialects'[56]
- Shaun Davies, reperforming Crowley's original analysis, finds a single language with two mutually intelligible regional varieties and excludes Geynyan and the Byron Bay Minyungbal from the branch.[4]
- Archibald Meston, the Chief Protector of Aborigines, writing in 1923, identifies a single "dialect" spoken in the area from the Nerang to the Logan, which he identified as Yoocum/Yoocumbah.[57]
- The Yugambeh Museum say their language is spoken in the Logan, Gold Coast, Scenic Rim, and Tweed areas.[58]
The
The Logan area ran along its western edges, while its eastern limits were on the Tamborine Plateau, Canungra and just short of the Coomera River.[65] It was first recorded in substantial form by the Jimboomba schoolteacher John Allen on the basis of a vocabulary supplied to him by the Wangerriburra clansman Bullum in 1913,[66] and later described in more detail by Margaret Sharpe who took down detail notes from her informant Joe Culham, one of the last speakers (d.1968) of this variety of the dialect.[61] Nils Holmer completed his Linguistic survey of south-eastern Queensland in 1983, a chapter of which included vocabulary and an analysis of grammar of the language as spoken by the Manandjali (Mununjali) living in Beaudesert and the surrounding area.[67]
Country
The Yugambeh territory lies between the
Society
Linguistically, the Yugambeh speak language varieties of the wider
- The use of separate section names / social division terms[77]
- Distinct kinship systems in place (although with shared terminology)[78]
- Differences of scarring patterns[79]
Social divisions
Mother | Father | Son | Daughter |
---|---|---|---|
Baranggan | Deroin | Bandjur | Bandjuran |
Bandjuran | Banda | Barang | Baranggan |
Deroingan | Barang | Banda | Bandagan |
Bandagan | Bandjur | Deroin | Deroingan |
Kinship
Among the
Clans
In common with their northerly neighbours, i.e. the
Name | Location | Alternative names |
---|---|---|
Gugingin[94] Northerners (gugin =north).[95] |
The lower Logan River,[96] lower Albert River.[95] | Logan tribe,[89] Guwangin, Warrilcum (waril=big river)[95] |
Wanggeriburra[94] Whiptail wallaby people.[69][f] |
Middle Albert River basin and Coomera River headwaters.[96][g] | Tamborine tribe[89] |
Bullongin[94][91] River people |
Coomera River basin.[94][91][97] | Balunjali[91] |
Tulgigin Dry-Forest People |
The Northern Lower-Tweed River basin. |
Chabooburri |
Kombumerri[94] Mudgrove-worm People.[h] |
The Nerang River basin.[94][91] | Talgaiburra[91] |
Mununjali[94] Hard/baked black ground People.[i] |
Beaudesert.[96][94] | Manaldjali[61] |
Murangbara[98] Water-Vine People[99] |
The Upper-Tweed River basin. Bray puts them on the north side of the northern arm of the Tweed.[100] |
Moorung-Mooburra[j] |
Kudjangbara[98] Red-Ochre People[101] |
The Southern Lower-Tweed River Basin. The area ten miles in from coast between the Tweed and Brunswick Rivers.[100][101] |
Cudgenburra,[101] Coodjinburra,[100] Goodjinburra[102] |
Migunberri [94]Mountain Spike People |
Christmas Creek.[96][94] | Balgaburri, Migani, Miganbari, Migunburri, Migunni[103] |
Confederacy
According to Anthony Jefferies, the Mibiny (Yugambeh/Ngarangwal/Nganduwal) are part of a larger extra-linguistic group he referred to as a "confederacy" or "messmate"; he called the Chepara (Djipara) this confederacy which combined the
History
Pre-European arrival (pre-1824)
Archaeological evidence indicates that Aboriginal people have lived in the Gold Coast region for tens of thousands of years.
Early European exploration and colonisation (1824–1860)
A penal colony was established by European settlers in 1824, just north of the Yugambeh clans, which was encircled by a 50-mile exclusion zone.[k]
The Brisbane area was open to free settlement in 1842.[114] Reverend Henry Stobart wrote of the Yugambeh in 1853, remarking on the abundance of resources in the area, and noted in particular thriving stands of walking stick palms, endemic to the Numinbah Valley and in Yugambeh called midyim,[115] a resource already being harvested for sale in England.[116] By this time the Yugambeh were already cautious of government officials, with women and children hiding from strangers until it was determined they were not government representatives.[116] Henry Stobart commented:
The Aborigines in this part rarely see white men, except very bad specimens of them – sawyers chiefly, engaged in cutting timber – from whom they have learnt little else of our language excepting oaths, and by whom, they are, I fear, in too many cases treated very inhumanely[117]
The Yugambeh suffered from violent attacks undertaken by the Australian native police under their colonial leaders. According to the informant John Allen, over 60 years old at the time, and referring to his earliest memories sometime in the 1850s, a group of his tribe were surprised by troopers at Mount Wetheren and fired upon.
The blacks—men, women, and children—were in a dell at the base of a cliff. Suddenly a body of troopers appeared on the top of the cliff and without warning opened fire on the defenceless party below. Bullumm remembers the horror of the time, of being seized by a gin and carried to cover, of cowering under the cliff and hearing the shots ringing overhead, of the rush through the scrub to get away from the sound of the death-dealing guns. In this affair only two were killed, an old man and a gin. Those sheltered under the cliff could hear the talk of the black troopers, who really did not want to kill, but who tried to impress upon the white officer in charge the big number they had slaughtered.[17]
In 1855 an incident caused by a local tribesman sparked off a running spree of killings as troopers sought to kill the culprit. Allen recounted the story thus:
'About 1855. A German woman and her boy were killed at Sandy Creek, Jimboomba, near where is now the McLean Bridge, by a blackfellow known as "Nelson." The murderer was coming back from Brisbane on horseback and met the woman and boy on the road walking to Brisbane. The man was caught soon after committing the crime, but escaped from custody. He was a Coomera black, but sometimes lived with the Albert and Nerang tribes. The black troopers knew this, and were constantly on his tracks but never caught him. They had no scruples in shooting any blacks in the hope that the victim might be the escaped murderer. From 30 to 40 blacks were killed by troopers in this way, but "Nelson" died a natural death in spite of it all, some years after in Beenleigh.'[17]
In 1857, he recalled, again under the direction of Frederick Wheeler, a further massacre took place on the banks of the Nerang River (which may have followed theft on William Duckett White's Murry Jerry run there):[118]
A party of " Alberts," among whom was old blind Nyajum, was there camped on a visit to their friends and neighbours of the Nerang and Tweed. There had been a charge of cattle-killing brought against the local tribes, and someone had to pay. The police heard of this camp, and, under command of Officer Wheeler, cut it off on the land side with a body of troopers. The alarm was given. The male aboriginals plunged into the creek, swam to the other side, and hid in the scrub. The black troopers again were bad marksmen—probably with intent—as the only casualties were one man shot in the leg and one boy drowned. The old blind man had been hidden under a pile of skins in a hut, but was found by the troopers and dragged out by the heels. The gins told the troopers he was blind from birth. The troopers begged the officer not to order the poor fellow to be killed. The gins crowded round Wheeler imploring mercy for the wretched victim; some hung on to the troopers to prevent them firing. But prayers were useless; Wheeler was adamant. The gins were dragged off or knocked off with carbines, and the blind man was then shot by order of the white officer.'[17]
In another incident, which took place in 1860, six Yugambeh youths were kidnapped from camps in the area of the Nerang River area and forcibly transported to Rockhampton where they were to be inducted into, and trained to carry out punitive missions, by Frederick Wheeler, an officer with a notorious record for brutality. On witnessing the murder of one of the trainees, the small group planned their escape and, one night, snuck away to embark on an epic walk of some 550 kilometres back home. Fearing betrayal, they shied clear even of other Aboriginal groups of their route which followed the coast on their left. After three months trekking, one youth climbed a tree and cried out Wollumbin! Wollumbin! (Mount Warning), much in the manner of the Greeks in Xenophon's Anabasis. They had made it back home. One of the youths, Keendahn, who was ten years old at the time, was so traumatised by the experience that he would hide in the bush for decades later, whenever word of police in the vicinity reached their camps.[119]
William E. Hanlon's family of English immigrants settled there around 1863. He states that the Yugambeh were friendly from the outstart:
There were many blacks in the district, but on no occasion did they give us any trouble. On the contrary, we were always glad to see them, for they brought us fish, kangaroo tails, crabs, or honey, to barter for our flour, sugar, tea, or "tumbacca."[120]
Hanlon wrote of the areas rich resources. In a single morning he and 4 friends shot down 200 bronzewing pigeons[121] and large stands of much sought after red cedar, pine and beech were harvested by incoming woodcutters, while stands of the now highly prized tulip wood were burnt off as "useless".[122] Returning to the area in the early 1930s after a half century absence, he wrote:
I found the rivers denuded of all their old and glorious scrubs, and their whilom denizens were neither to be seen nor heard. The streams themselves seemed to be sullen and sluggish, and polluted, and wore an air of being ashamed of their now-a-days nudity. Utility and ugliness were the dominant notes everywhere. In many places the physical features of the places were changed or entirely obliterated; watercourse and chain of ponds of my day were, nearly all, filled in with the accumulated debris of the past half century or so.[120]
Mission era (1860–1960)
Non-indigenous arrival brought a negative impact on the local people, like alcohol and disease; conflict and displacement of Yugambeh groups from traditional food sources as settlers acquired land for agricultural purposes.[13] The struggles of the original inhabitants was recognised by government authorities, but too often efforts failed to achieve much.[13] Pastor Johann Gottfried Haussmann founded the first mission in the newly separate colony of Queensland in 1866 at Beenleigh, this mission Bethesda was said by Haussmann to be a "heathen mission" to the local Aboriginals in the wider Albert-Logan area:
My main tasks shall be, provided the Lord permit me to live, to do Mission work amongst the poor heathen. This was the reason I actually came to Australia.[123]
In 1866, a large corroboree of 200 was held nearby which Haussmann attended, meeting a few men whom he had instructed at Zion Hill Mission.[123] Since November, the Yugambeh of the Logan and Albert rivers had started gathering at Bethesda (Wherever missions were established in Australia, Aboriginal people understood very quickly that Christmas was an excellent time to visit – there would be festivities, ceremonies and an all-pervading spirit of gift giving.)[123] Pastor Haussmann is said to have used this increase of visitors as an opportunity to negotiate a contract with the "chief" to pay him five shillings weekly, presumably work was expected in return, but he used the time also to "speak to them about the well being of their souls", gathering them every day under a tree in order to recite hymns and prayer and reading from the New Testaments, which Haussmann would then explain to them.[123] Haussmann's reports record a number of identities at Bethesda, from October to December 1867 a man named Jack was taught by Haussmann regularly, and had learnt to read and write, a King Rohma (a chief of the tribe), and a Kingkame (or Kingkema, or Kingcame) who brought his family to attend devotions each day, he also acted as a mediator to Haussmann's industrial mission at Nerang.[123] In 1869, the German Lutheran Church, again led by Haussmann, secured land for a mission on the western bank of the Nerang River at Advancetown, here they established the "Nerang Creek Aboriginal Industrial Mission".[14][123] Similar to what Haussmann had begun at Bethesda, the mission's purpose was to Christianise and provide support to the Yugambeh people.[14] Starting at initial 1,000 acres (400 ha), the Nerang mission grew to a reserve of 5,000 acres (2,000 ha), it was not successful however, with only some minor works occurring before the reserve was cancelled in 1879.[14] Due to an inability to make their mortgage repayments on their sugar business, Haussmann's Bethesda Mission saw its demise.[123] The discouraging progress of indigenous conversion at Bethesda hindered the Mission-work and there was a lack of financial support from the government and the wider Christian network.[123] Falling sugar prices, rust infestations at Bethesda, the incompetency of the mission's machinery and increased competition from neighbours all combined to push the Haussmann's operation into an irreparable financial situation and Bethesda Mission closed in 1881.[123]
Deebing Creek Aboriginal Mission and Industrial School was established in 1887,[124] it operated at South Deebing Road until 1915 when it was moved to Carmichael Road, and became known as Purga.[21] Deebing creek saw the mixing of numerous tribes, the Chief Protector of the Aborigines – Archibald Meston, removed Aboriginal people from the Brisbane, Fassifern and Logan areas to Deebing Creek, a place where, he hoped that Aboriginals from different tribes would be able to live amicably with one another.[19] As settlers encroached Yugambeh lands were alienated from their traditional users and by the turn of the century they were being forced to go to these reserves.[125] Many Yugambeh remained in their traditional country and found employment with farmers, oyster producers and fishermen, timber cutters and mills constructed for the production of resources like sugar and arrowroot.[13] Yugambeh people protested their removal from the lands of their fathers and mothers, with protests occurring from groups at Boonah, Beaudesert, Beenleigh and Southport. These arguments were not accepted by European authorities and groups were sent to centralised reserves 'for their own beneft'.[19] The Aborigines Protection Act of 1897 saw the removal of many of the remaining Yugambeh people from their land to Aboriginal missions and reserves throughout Queensland, but Yugambeh people did resis pressure to move, like Bilin Bilin who was able to stay on his country until old age forced him to relocate to the mission at Deebing Creek.[18] Deebing creek had a school and a number of huts and continued to operate until 1948.[21] With many uncertainties and difficulties, some Yugambeh people found refuge in the mountains of the hinterland, while others were employed on farms, in the timber industry or as domestic servants.[13] On the coast, others were able to be involved in the fishing, oyster and tourism industries.[13] At the advent of both world wars, Yugambeh people attempted to enlist but, like other Aboriginal Australians, had their efforts to join the armed forces resisted due to official policy that saw them as unsuitable because of their "racial origin". In a few cases however they were successful, with 10 Yugambeh people serving in World War I, then subsequently 47 in World War II, they have fought in every major conflict from World War I to the 1991 Gulf War.[126] After service, their contributions were rarely recognised by historians or brought to the attention of the public, and they were not paid the same as other returned soldiers.[126] A number of Yugambeh people sought refuge on Ukerabagh Island in the mouth of the Tweed River, which provided any isolated environment to maintain their culture, and by the early 1920s a small community had grown.[20] Australia's first indigenous member of the Australian parliament Neville Bonner was born on Ukerabagh in 1922.[20] In 1927, the NSW Aborigines Protection Board declared the island an Aboriginal Reserve, which allowed to be serviced with government rations.[20] Not all Aboriginal people moved to Ukerabagh by choice, some were sent there by local police to keep them away from white settlements.[20] The island was also home to Torres Strait Islanders who had come to work on the Tweed.[20] Its status as an Aboriginal Reserve was revoked in 1951, but families continued to live there.[20]
Recent history (since 1960)
Through 1968 to 1983, Yugambeh people were studied by linguists, those interviewed were living in the Beaudesert and surrounding areas,[67] Woodenbong,[127] and the Tweed.[67] Anthropologists mapping Aboriginal groups in Queensland also found a number of Yugambeh living at Cherbourg Mission in the 70s.[128] In 1974, members of the Mununjali clan started the Beaudesert Aborigines and Islander Cooperative society.[23] In the late 70s families who resided on Ukerabagh Island protested against proposed development, and in 1980 the area was gazetted as the Ukerebagh Island Nature Reserve.[20] In the early 1980s a number of Yugambeh, sitting around a dining room table, discussed an idea that lead them to found the Kombumerri Aboriginal Corporation for Culture which grew into one of Australia's most successful Aboriginal-owned language organisations, and is a major contributor to the indigenous cultural landscape of south east Queensland.[22] The Yugambeh, represented by the Kombumerri Aboriginal Corporation for Culture with the support and assistance from the Gold Coast City Council, erected a War Memorial on the site of the Jebribillum Bora Park Burleigh Heads at Burleigh Heads in 1991, now known as Jebribillum Bora Park.[129][130] The memorial consists of a stone taken from nearby Mt Tamborine, a sacred site to the Yugambeh clans. Sources provide three transcriptions for the inscription, which means "Many Eagles (Yugambeh warriors) Protecting Our Country":
- Mibun Wallal Mundindehla Ŋaliŋah/Njalinjah Dhagun[131]
- mibun wallul mundindehla nalinah dhagun[130]
- Mibunn Wallull Munjindeila Ngullina Jagun[129]
The corporation established the Yugambeh Museum, Language and Heritage Research Centre at the corner of Martens Street and Plantation Road in Beenleigh. It was opened in 1995 by Senator Neville Bonner, Australia's first Aboriginal Federal Parliamentarian. The museum is the main resource for objects and information relating to the ongoing story of the Yugambeh people, their spiritual and cultural history, and their language. The museum organises education programs, exhibitions and events, including traditional ceremonies.[58] The Museum houses over 20 distinct exhibits composed of over 300 panels.[22] The Yugambeh Museum also maintains records and research on Yugambeh descendants who served in the armed forces.[126] The Gold Coast Aboriginal and Islander Housing Co-operative was founded in 1981, the result of a successful local movement of Aboriginal people on the Gold Coast lobbying for affordable housing to help those in need, this society went on to come Kalwun Development Corporation in 1994.[132] With authorisation from the Yugambeh people, Kalwun operates the Jellurgal Aboriginal Cultural Centre which offers bus and walking tours of the Gold Coast, and is fully owned and operated by the local Aboriginal community.[25] The same year of Kalwun's founding, the Beaudesert Aborigines and Islander society started Mununjali housing, the society continued to exist, however is solely run by Mununjali under a Memorandum of Understanding.[23] Mununjali Housing and Development Company Ltd is the umbrella for:
- Jymbi (Family) Centre – A family support service that offers counselling, court support, referrals, client support services and day/overnight programs.[23]
- Jymbilung House Home and Community Care – A housing provider and aged care facility.[23]
- The Mununjali Pace Program – The Parental and Community Engagement program (PaCE) is a service provided to parents to support their children's education and involvement in school.[23]
In 1998 the Ngarangwal, operating Ngarang-Wal Land Council made a successful application to the Indigenous Land Corporation which purchased a 100 acres (40 ha) of land at the bottom of Tamborine their behalf, this land was declared the Guanaba Indigenous Protected Area in November 2000.
Baton Relay- marking the first time
When I was a little girl, probably seven or eight years old, I was cracking Queensland nuts. My grandmother said "when I was a little girl I planted those nuts as I walked with my father along the Nerang river" and she said "you call them Queensland nuts, I call them Goomburra". She planted them when she walked with her dad, and as an adult she saw them bearing fruit.[139]
Economy
The native economy can be described as well-planned, with a deliberate effort to make maximum use of resources.[87] This was achieved by a regular annual cycle in step with seasonal changes, and boosted with well-thought-out inter-clan trade.[87] Tools and implements were produced from local material where possible.[87]
Cuisine
The traditional Yugambeh diet consisted of flora and fauna native to their region, almost anything that could be eaten was, though certain species were avoided for totemic reasons.
Medicine
Dozens of species of plants were used for medicinal purposes, and local people continue to use them to this day.
Technology
Plant material, animal parts and various inorganic compounds were the raw materials of much Yugambeh technology.[151] The inner bark of many tree trunks was used for rope production, and fine strings were made from grasses.[151] The Cotton Tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus) was used to produce rope for all kinds of purposes, while the inner bark of the kurrajong (Brachychiton populneus) was used for fishing line.[151] Kangaroo sinew was used to fasten implements or sowing possum skins and echidna spines were used to pierce the skins.[151] These manufactured ropes were used for net production – nets with large meshes were made from strong ropes and used for dugong and wallaby hunts, while finer rope was used in fish nets.[152] Mat rush (Lomandra longifolia and Lomandra hystrix) was used to weave dillybags.[152] These bags were used for a variety of purposes and were made in a number of sizes, some being quite large.[152] The sap of the hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghami) was used as a cement, and Xanthorrhoea species were valued as well a source of glue.[153] Shelters were made from a light frame covered in sheets of bark tied down with rope; native ginger leaves (Alpinia caerulea) were used in hut making and paperbark bark (Melaleuca quinquenervia) was used to thatch the roofs.[154] Weapons like spears were made from various Acacia species and hardened in fire, while boomerangs and nullahs were made from the lancewood tree (Dissiliaria baloghioides').[153] The women's implements digging sticks are made from the hardest woods, often ironbark; their points, like those of spears, were hardened by fire.[153] Shields, worked from large lumps of wood, were made from the spotted gum (Corymbia citriodora) and grey mangrove (Avicenia marina).[153] Where it was impractical to use a spear or net to fish (such as small waterholes or broken creeks), various species of plants were used as fish poisons,[155] these included peeled stalks of smartweed (Persicaria hydropiper), crushed leaves of soap tree (Alphitonia excelsa), tie bush (Wickstroemia indica), snake vine (Stephania japonica), white cedar (Melia azederach), cunjevoi (Alocasia macrorrhizos), and quinine bush (Petalostigma pubescens) and the crushed bark of Acacia falcata, Acacia melanoxylon, and Acacia tomentosus; the inner bark of the foam tree (Jagera pseudorhus), a noted fish poison, has high concentrations of saponins.[156] These paralysed the lungs of the fish, making them float to the top of the water, and easier to catch.[155]
Culture
Oral culture
The seasonal pattern of plants and animals varied, appearing at particular times of the year, and were used as indicators of the season.[155] The migratory patterns of birds was well known, and their seasonal migrations were used to determine if certain resources were available/unavailable.[157] For the Wanggeriburra, the lorikeet indicated the forthcoming mullet season along the coast,[157] while the Pied Currawong indicated Black Bream were available.[139] The flowering of particular plant species was also used to indicate resource availability; Hop Bush (Dodonaea triquetra) indicated the best time for oysters, Silk Oak (Grevillea robusta) indicated turtles and eels, while Tea Tree (Melaleuca bracteata) indicated the mullet were available.[158] Species, like Macadamia, had dual uses, such as being planted along travel routes as a food source as well as functioning as markers for travellers.[139] Local groups used oral poems to encode this information.[155] An example of one was recorded by J.A. Gresty, which goes:
Gresty explained this poem as encoding seasonal information relating to the Silky Oak and Tea Tree and the correlation of their flowering to the turtle and mullet seasons respectively.
Long ago, Berruġ together with Mommóm (and) Yabúrong came to this land. They came with their wives and children in a great canoe, from an island across the sea. As they came near the shore, a woman on the land made a song that raised a storm which broke the canoe in pieces, but all the occupants, after battling with the waves, managed to swim ashore. This is how 'the men' the paiġål black race, came to this land.The pieces of the canoe are to be seen to this day. If any one will throw a stone and strike a piece of the canoe, a storm will arise, and the voices of Berrúġ and his boys will be heard calling to one another, amidst the roaring elements. The pieces of the canoe are certain rocks in the sea.
At Ballina, Berrúg looked around and said, nyuġ? and all the paiġål about there say nyuġ to the present day. On the Tweed he said, ġando? (ngahndu)and the Tweed paigål say ġando to the present day. This is how the blacks came to have different dialects. Berrúġ and his brothers came back to the Brunswick River, where he made a fire, and showed the paiġål how to make fire. He taught them their laws about the kippåra, and about marriage and food. After a time, a quarrel arose, and the brothers fought and separated, Mommóm going south, Yaburóng west, and Berrúġ keeping along the coast. This is how the paiġål were separated into tribes.[162]
The legend of the Three Brothers is used to explain the kinship bonds that extend through the
These bonds between Bundjalung and Yugambeh people are revealed through genealogy, and are evident in our common language dialects. Our legends unite us.
Yugambeh people are the descendants of the brother Yarberri who travelled to the north. In Yugambeh legend he is known as Jabreen. Jabreen created his homeland by forming the mountains, the river systems and the flora and fauna. The people grew out of this environment.
Jabreen created the site known as Jebbribillum when he came out of the water onto the land. As he picked up his fighting waddy, the land and water formed into the shape of a rocky outcrop (Little Burleigh). This was the site where people gathered to learn and to share resources created by Jabreen. The ceremony held at this site became known as the Bora and symbolised the initiation of life. Through the ceremony, people learned to care for the land and their role was to preserve its integrity.[163]
Another traditional story tells of battle which resulted in the creation of many landforms and rivers across the region.[164] This battle, between the creatures of the sky, land, and sea, took place at the mouth of the Logan river;[164] W.E. Hanlon recorded a version of this story in his reminiscences, which he titled "The Genesis of Pimpama Island":
In the old days "plenty long before whiteman bin come-up" (the legend runs), all that part of Moreton Bay, from Doogurrumburrum (Honeycomb), now Rocky Point, at the mouth of the Logan River, to Kanaipa (Ironbark spear) was the theatre of a titanic war between all the denizens of the land, the air, and the water then inhabiting that region. In those times the country bordering on this watery tract was high and dry, not like it is now, all swamps and marshes—and mosquitos. The real reason of this epic conflict is obscure, but it is generally supposed that the three main divisions of animal life—terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic—fought, triangularly, for supremacy; birds, flying foxes, sharks, purooises, "goannas", snakes, etc., all participated in the strife. Yowgurra, the goanna, was early in the fray, armed with a spear; but, just as he joined in the melee, Boggaban, the sparrow hawk, swooped down and snatched the spear (juan) out of the grasp of Yowgurra. With this in its hands, it flew over the water and drove the spear into the back of a porpoise that just at that moment exposed itself. The porpoise, with a spear sticking it its back, exerted itself to a mighty blast and blew the weapon out; but there ensued such an incessant torrent of mingled blood and water from the spear wound that all the neighbouring territory became inundated, of channels and creeks of that portion of the Bay, and from this cause originated Pimpama Island Tajingpa (the well), Yawulpah (wasp), Wahgumpa (turkey), Coombabah (a pocket of land), etc., all great areas of swampy country.[164]
The Migunberri Yugambeh have a story of two men, Balugan and Nimbin, and their hunting dingoes, Burrajan, a male, and Ninerung, a female,
The Ilbogan lagoon is thought in local Aboriginal lore to be connected by a passage to another lagoon, Bungropin, ("the place of parrots") by the Mununjali, and the aquatic warrajum was believed to be capable of travelling underground between the two sites.
Marriage
The Yugambeh believe that Yabirri (Yahbrine, Jabreen) taught them their laws of marriage.[167] Being exogamous, prospective husbands amongst the Yugambeh clans visited and stayed in the territories of their future wives for 1–2 years as, allowing their possible future in-laws to judge their suitability in character and economic provision.[108] This rite was known was Ngarabiny.[108]
A man marries a woman who belongs to the same section and generation as his mother's brother's daughter, and who is, according to the terminology, a relative of the same kind. But she must come from another part of the country, and must not be closely related to him. The normal procedure was described to me as follows. A woman who is "father's sister" to a boy, possibly his own father's sister, would look out for a wife for him. Finding a woman who was her "sister", but not closely related to herself or her nephew, she would induce the latter to promise her daughter in marriage to the boy.[168]
A father's sister is known as a Ngaruny, and she reciprocally calls one Nyugun/Nyugunmahn.[83] A rotation existed within the marriage culture, with men finding wives from one direction, while women found their husbands from the opposite.[44]
The aborigines of the Tweed, Nerang, Coomera, and Albert Rivers were all on very friendly terms and were united by inter-family relation-ships, so that the so-called marriage by capture was between these tribes often a mere formality. Older men from one tribe would pay a visit to another and convey the information that they had a number of attractive young women of marriageable age. "What about some of your young fellows coming over and fighting us for them some night?" they would say. "Why, we were just thinking we might do that one night", would be the reply; "it might be about two nights after full moon." Back would go the visitors and tell their own men that it was just possible the tribe from over the river might be over to capture some of the young women, and about two nights after full moon would seem a likely time. "When they come over, fight them, but don't fight them so hard that they will be too badly knocked about to carry off a few brides."[169]
Music
Yugambeh music tradition made use of a number of instruments such as the possum skin drum (noted as a woman's instrument), the gum leaf, and the clapsticks.[170] The woman's drumming was noted by many of the early European arrivals and along with the gum leaf were considered distinctive instruments of the area.[170] A corroboree held at Mudgeeraba was said to feature over 600 drumming women, while in the early 20th century gum leaf bands were formed; the first record of such appearing in the Beaudesert Times in 1937.[170]
... last Saturday the natives of Beaudesert and district held a dance at the Technical Hall to assist the funds of the Ambulance Brigade ... A bus load of coloured folk from the Tweed district added to the numbers ... the Gumleaf Band also rendered an item ...[170]
Yugambeh musicians also incorporated western instruments into their songs, such as the accordion (known in Yugambeh language as a "Ganngalmay") and guitar.[170] Candace Kruger, a Yugambeh yarabilgingan (song woman), has been active in creating and teaching a youth choir whose main objectives are to sing (yarrabil) and learn the Yugambeh Language.[171] The choir has performed at a number of national and international events held on Yugambeh country.[171] Kruger, along with other Yugambeh people including her daughter Isabella and cousin, Lann Levinge, have worked with Elders to preserve the Morning Star and Evening Star Songline in a piece commissioned by the Australian Music Examinations Board].[172]
Death
Yugambeh informants elude to one of more souls, one that lingers at the grave, another that upon death "climbs up to Balugan" in the land of the dead, a third associated with a person's sacred site- djurebil, and possibly the moggai (mokwi), which may have been a distinct spiritual entity haunting the grave and the place of death.[109] Human remains were considered sacred, and burial sites were kept clear of out of respect.[173] Great attention was paid to avoid disturbing previous burials, however if this was to occur, it was imperative to treat the remains with the appropriate respect and ceremony.[173] Burial was a two-staged process, the first of which involved wrapping the body in paper bark and later a blanket tied with a possum-fur string,[109] and temporary interring them within a white ant's nest for a designated time, after which the body was retrieved and a family member, typically the widow of the deceased, would travel with the body during a period of mourning after which they were permanently interred.[n] On the Tweed River, the body was interred on a hillside in a sitting position, hunched up, probably by the breaking of bones or ligaments.[174] The Migunburri buried their dead in caves and rock clefts.[174] The Beaudesert Mununjali would talk to the corpse while it was being carried slung on a pole to the grave site, trying to elicit by questioning who the sorcerer might have been who caused the death. The body was said to buck violently if the culprit's name was mentioned.[174]
Native title
As of 2019, Yugambeh native title claims on their traditional country have yet to find endorsement by the National Native Title Tribunal. A Kombumerri claim was filed in 1996 over their clan territory,[175] but was not accepted.[176] This was followed by a Kombumerri People #2 claim in 1998,[177] this application was also rejected.[178] A larger Eastern Yugambeh People claim was filed in 2001,[179] it was also rejected.[180] The Eastern Clans Native Title Claim in the Federal Court was filed on the 5 September 2006 under the application name Gold Coast Native Title Group (Eastern Yugambeh), and accepted by the Register on 23 September 2013.[181] The application, naming ten Apical Ancestors, referred to territory encompassing lands and waters across the Gold Coast local government area within the state of Queensland.[181] It was dismissed on 13 September 2014 with a Part Determination that Native Title did not exist on lands granted a prior lease.[181][182] On the rejection of this claim, The Yugambeh clans filed a Native Title Claim in the Federal Court on 27 June 2017 under the application name Danggan Balun (Five Rivers) People.[183] Their claim was accepted for registration by the Registrar on 14 September 2017.[184] It was further amended on 28 of August 2020 naming twenty-three Apical Ancestors and encompasses lands and waters across five local government areas within the state of Queensland.[183]
Notable people
Arts
- Ysola Best - Author, elder
- Shaun Davies – Linguist, activist, media personality
- Lionel Fogarty - Poet
- Rory O'Connor - Author, journalist
- Stephen Page – Artistic director, dancer, choreographer, film director
- David Page – Musician, composer
- Hunter Page-Lochard – Actor
- Ellen van Neerven – Writer[185]
- Chelsea Watego – Academic, writer
Business
- Phillipa McDermott - Businesswoman
Leaders
- Bilin Bilin – Indigenous community leader
- Billy Drumley – Indigenous community leader
- Lambert McBride – Activist
- Patricia O'Connor – Elder, language reviver
- Ted Williams - Elder
Sports
- Tony Currie - Rugby league player, Qld, Australia, Rothmans Medallist
- Jamal Fogarty – Rugby league player
- Gary French - Rugby League player
- Lloyd McDermott – Rugby union player, Australia's first indigenous barrister
- Germaine Paulson - Rugby league player
- Jamie Sandy - Rugby league player
- Ashley Taylor - Rugby league player
Alternative spellings and names
- Chepara[10][11]
- Chipara
- Coodjingburra.[59][o]
- Cudgingberry. (name of a Minyungbal clan at Cudgen)
- Gando Minjang
- Gandowal
- Gendo. (exonymreferring to their language)
- Jugambeir
- Jukam
- Minjangbal (heard at Woodenbong in 1938).
- Minyowa
- Minyung
- Ngandowul
- Tjapera
- Tjipara. (horde near Brisbane)
- Yögum
- Yoocum[186]
- Yoocumbah
- Yugambir
- Yuggum
- Yugumbir
- Yukum=
Source: Tindale 1974, p. 171
Some words
- dagay (whiteman/ghost)
See also
- Broadbeach Aboriginal burial ground
Notes
- ^ Evidence given by Allan Cunningham, 13 February 1832, "Report from Select Committee on Secondary Punishments 1821–32".. cited by J. G. Steele, Brisbane Town in Convict Davs 1824–1843, (St Lucia, Queensland University Press, 1974), p. 164; R. I. Longhurst, 'Settlement and Development of Queensland's Gold Coast to 1889 '.. Settlement of the Colony oi QiLeensisnd- (Brisbane, Library Board of Queensland, 1978), pp. 4-5.
- ^ "The name Yugambeh (or Yugam) follows another common convention of language names in the area, by naming the language by its word for 'no'.. Yugambeh (or its older form Yugumbir) is just the word for 'no' (or more accurately 'no' plus the suffix -beh or -bir)." (Sharpe 1998, p. 2)
- ^ The word, referring to the indigenous people, means "Eaglehawk" (Prior et al. 1887, p. 213).
- ^ Culham said yugambe: was the negative, and Mrs. Weizel referred to the language as Yugam (Cunningham 1969, p. 96).
- ^ According to the Gidabal at Woodenbong, the coastal people are supposed to have called the inland clans Minyangbal (Cunningham 1969, p. 97).
- ^ From wan'gari, the pretty-faced whip-tailed wallaby (Macdonald 2009, pp. 29–30).
- ^ The Wangerriburra tribe occupied the country in the basin of the middle Albert River and the headwaters of the Coomera River. Their territory stretched from Cedar Creek on the north to the Macpherson Range on the south; and from the Birnam Range on the west to the Upper Coomera and the Nerang Watershed on the east. It contained the well-known Tamborine Mountain. Its greatest length from north to south was 33 miles, its greatest breadth, 15 miles (Cunningham 1969, p. 97)
- ^ According to Germaine Greer, Archibald Meston called people in this area Talgiburri, equivalent to what Margaret Sharpe transcribes as the Dalgaybara, a word meaning "people of the dalgay or dry sclerophyll forest" rather than saltwater people. Greer argues that there is an apparent confusion, asserting that "The Kombumerri called themselves people of the dry forest; Bullum called them mangrove-worm (cobra) eaters, and now they describe themselves as 'saltwater people'." (Greer 2014, pp. 118–119)
- ^ "the soil at Beau desert is a rich black when freshly ploughed." (Cunningham 1969, p. 97)
- Kalibal (Tindale 1974, pp. –78–79).
- ^ Evidence given by Allan Cunningham, 13 February 1832, "Report from Select Committee on Secondary Punishments 1821–32".. cited by J. G. Steele, Brisbane Town in Convict Davs 1824–1843, (St Lucia, Queensland University Press, 1974), p. 164; R. I. Longhurst, 'Settlement and Development of Queensland's Gold Coast to 1889 '.. Settlement of the Colony oi QiLeensisnd- (Brisbane, Library Board of Queensland, 1978), pp. 4-5.
- ^ "Burrajan was the male dingo and his name may be connected with the word burangdjin, meaning dress or clothes, as in the case of dingo tails worn by adult men at ceremonies. Ninerung was the female dingo; this word is probably the same as ngurun or yurugin." (Steele 1984, p. 79)
- Moreton Bay Courier, 9 February 1850. The description runs as follows:The head appeared to be elongated and flattened, like the bill of a platypus. The body, from the place where it joined the head, to about five feet backward, seemed like that of a gigantic eel, being of about the ordinary thickness of a man's body. Beyond this it was of much larger apparent size, having the appearance of being coiled into innumerable folds. Beyond those coils was what seemed to be the tail of the animal, which had somewhat the shape of the tail of a fish, but is described as having the semi-transparent appearance of a bladder. The head, which was small and narrow in proportion to the size of the body, was furnished with what seemed to be two horns, which were quite white. Under the circumstances it was, of course, difficult to judge accurately of the whole length of the animal, but, by comparison with other objects, it is supposed that the parts visible above the water must have been thirty feet in extent.[166]
- ^ Wall Text, Ancestor Panels, Kungala Centre, Yugambeh Museum, Language & Heritage Research Centre, Beenleigh, QLD
- ^ Transcribed by Tindale as 'Kudjangbara.' (Tindale 1974, p. 79)
Citations
- ^ a b Geyteenbeek & Geyteenbeek 1971, p. 3.
- ^ a b Sharpe 1998, p. 261.
- ^ a b c Cunningham 1969, p. 106.
- ^ a b c d Davies 2022, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Aird 1991, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d Watson n.d.
- ^ a b c d e Jefferies 2011.
- ^ a b c Bannister 1982.
- ^ DBAC 2019, People.
- ^ a b Fison & Howitt 1880, pp. 205, 268, 327.
- ^ a b Howitt 1904, pp. 137, 318–319, 326, 354, 385, 468, 578–583, 767.
- ^ a b Calley 1959, p. 10.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Nerang Heritage 2017, p. 4.
- ^ a b c d e Dyason & Ganter n.d.
- ^ a b c Jefferies 2011, p. 138.
- ^ a b c d e f g Best & Barlow 1997, pp. 12–13.
- ^ a b c d Allen & Lane 1914, p. 24.
- ^ a b c CBHS Year 5 History.
- ^ a b c d e Evans 1999, p. 131.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j OEH Ukerabagh Island.
- ^ a b c Purga and Purga Shire.
- ^ a b c NAIDOC 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f MH&DC.
- ^ a b c d Guanaba 2013.
- ^ a b jellurgal.com.au.
- ^ Gresty 1947, p. 60.
- ^ 2016 Census: Logan (C).
- ^ 2016 Census: Gold Coast (C).
- ^ 2016 Census: Scenic Rim (R).
- ^ 2016 Census: Tweed (A).
- ^ a b Jefferies 2011, p. 120.
- ^ Tindale 1974, p. 42.
- ^ Sharpe 1998, p. vii.
- ^ a b Tindale 1974, p. 194.
- ^ AUSTLANG E17.
- ^ AUSTLANG E78.
- ^ AUSTLANG E79.
- ^ Sharpe 2005b, p. 2.
- ^ a b Crowley 1978, p. 252.
- ^ a b c d e Sharpe 1998, p. 1.
- ^ a b Crowley 1978, p. 142.
- ^ Livingstone 1892, p. 3.
- ^ a b Sharpe 1985, p. 101.
- ^ a b Sharpe 1998, p. 3.
- ^ Sharpe 1994, p. 188.
- ^ a b Sharpe 2005b, p. 18.
- ^ Sharpe 2007, pp. 53–55.
- ^ a b Crowley 1978, pp. 144–150.
- ^ ABS 2017.
- ^ ABS. "2021 Census".
- ^ ABS 2016.
- ^ a b Crowley 1978, p. 165.
- ^ a b c Jefferies 2011, p. v.
- ^ Jefferies 2011, p. 31.
- ^ Steele 1984, p. 58.
- ^ Jefferies 2011, p. 80.5.
- ^ Meston 1923, p. 19.
- ^ a b YM 2017.
- ^ a b c Tindale 1974, p. 197.
- ^ Davies 2022, p. 14.
- ^ a b c Cunningham 1969, p. 69.
- ^ Crowley 1978, p. 145.
- ^ Davies 2022, p. 13.
- ^ Davies 2022, p. 12.
- ^ Cunningham 1969, p. 71.
- ^ Drake 2012, p. 43.
- ^ a b c Holmer 1983.
- ^ Tindale 1974, p. 171.
- ^ a b c Cunningham 1969, p. 97.
- ^ a b c Howitt 1904, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Fison & Howitt 1880, p. 268.
- ^ a b c Jefferies 2011, p. 77.5.
- ^ Jefferies 2011, p. 77.
- ^ a b Sharpe 1985, p. 103.
- ^ Tindale 1974, pp. 196–197.
- ^ a b Jefferies 2011, pp. 108–111.
- ^ a b c Jefferies 2011, pp. 108–109.
- ^ a b Jefferies 2011, p. 132.
- ^ a b Jefferies 2011, p. 110.
- ^ a b Mathews 1906, pp. 74–86.
- ^ Wafer & Lissarrague 2008.
- ^ a b Jefferies 2011, pp. 145–146.
- ^ a b c Jefferies 2011, pp. 147–148.
- ^ Jefferies 2011, p. 152.
- ^ a b c d e Buchanan 1999, pp. 8–18.
- ^ Crosby 2010a, p. 48.
- ^ a b c d Crosby 2010a, p. 50.
- ^ a b c d Crosby 2010a, p. 49.
- ^ a b c Allen & Lane 1914, pp. ?–107.
- ^ Manning 2021, pp. 21.08.
- ^ a b c d e f Jefferies 2011, pp. 87–91.
- ^ a b CoGC 2018, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Alexandra & Stanley 2007, p. 36.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Allen & Lane 1914, p. 36.
- ^ a b c Crosby 2010a, p. 25.
- ^ a b c d Horsman 1995, p. 42.
- ^ Sharpe 1998, p. 62.
- ^ a b Tindale 1974, p. 79.
- ^ Sharpe 1998, p. 273.
- ^ a b c Bray 1901, p. 9.
- ^ a b c Sharpe 1998, p. 161.
- ^ TRM.
- ^ "Clans". Yugambeh Nation.
- ^ a b Jefferies 2011, pp. 157–158.
- ^ White & Meehan 1990.
- ^ Jefferies 2011, p. 156.
- ^ Allen & Lane 1914, p. ?.
- ^ a b c Sharpe 1985, p. 112.
- ^ a b c d Haglund 1976, p. 80.
- ^ a b Greer 2014, p. 138.
- ^ Best 1994, p. 87.
- ^ a b c Best & Barlow 1997, pp. 16–21.
- ^ Longhurst 1980, p. 19.
- ^ Crosby 2010b, p. 154.
- ^ Greer 2014, p. 123.
- ^ a b Best 1994, p. 88.
- ^ Best 1994, pp. 88–89.
- ^ Longhurst 1980, p. 20.
- ^ Keendahn.
- ^ a b Hanlon 1935, p. 210.
- ^ Hanlon 1935, p. 212.
- ^ Hanlon 1935, p. 214.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Ganter & Vassilief n.d.
- ^ Queensland Government 2016.
- ^ Best 1994, p. 90.
- ^ a b c O'Connor 1991.
- ^ Cunningham 1969.
- ^ Koepping 1977.
- ^ a b Memorial 2017.
- ^ a b QWMR 2009.
- ^ Monument.
- ^ KDC.
- ^ a b c Guanaba FS.
- ^ Black 2017, pp. 131–153, 131.
- ^ a b NSW National Parks.
- ^ GC2018 – RAP.
- ^ GC2018 YouTube 2018.
- ^ a b c Borobi Mascot.
- ^ a b c d e f NITV 2018.
- ^ QBR 2017.
- ^ NZOC 2017.
- ^ Crosby 2010b, p. 104.
- ^ a b c d e f Crosby 2010a, p. 41.
- ^ a b Crosby 2010a, pp. 71–72.
- ^ a b c d Crosby 2010a, pp. 67–79.
- ^ Crosby 2010a, p. 78.
- ^ a b Crosby 2010a, p. 33.
- ^ a b Crosby 2010a, p. 32.
- ^ Crosby 2010a, p. 87.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Crosby 2010a, pp. 81–84.
- ^ a b c d Crosby 2010a, p. 36.
- ^ a b c Crosby 2010a, p. 37.
- ^ a b c d Crosby 2010a, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Crosby 2010a, p. 44.
- ^ a b c d e f Crosby 2010a, p. 34.
- ^ Crosby 2010a, p. 85.
- ^ a b Crosby 2010a, p. 31.
- ^ Crosby 2010a, p. 86.
- ^ a b Gresty 1947, p. 68.
- ^ a b c d e f g Steele 1984, p. 80.
- ^ Horsman 1995, p. 53.
- ^ Livingstone 1892, p. 27.
- ^ Best & Barlow 1997, pp. 50–51.
- ^ a b c Hanlon 1935, pp. 233–234.
- ^ a b Steele 1984, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Marlow 2016.
- ^ Jefferies 2011, p. 33.
- ^ Jefferies 2011, p. 133.
- ^ Gresty 1947, p. 63.
- ^ a b c d e Kruger 2005.
- ^ a b Kruger 2017.
- ^ Crossen 2021.
- ^ a b Best & Barlow 1997, p. 22.
- ^ a b c Haglund 1976, p. 79.
- ^ NNTT Kombumerri (1).
- ^ NNTT Kombumerri (2).
- ^ NNTT Kombumerri (3).
- ^ NNTT Kombumerri (4).
- ^ NNTT Eastern Yugambeh (1).
- ^ NNTT Eastern Yugambeh (2).
- ^ a b c NNTT.
- ^ Stolz 2006.
- ^ a b NNTT 2017.
- ^ Evans 2017.
- ^ Wheeler & van Neerven 2016, p. 294.
- ^ Meston & Small 1898, p. 46.
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Further reading
- Bray, Joshua (21 November 1899). "Tweed River. On dialects and place names". Science of Man. 2 (10): 192–194.
- ISBN 978-0-521-47378-1.
- Dutton, H. S. (22 March 1904). "Aboriginal place names". Science of Man. 7 (2): 24–27.
- Dutton, H. S. (27 June 1904). "Aboriginal dialects and place names (Queensland)". Science of Man. 7 (5): 72–77.
- O'Donnell, Dan (1990). "The Ugarapul tribe of the Fassifern Valley" (PDF). Journal of the Royal Historical Society of Queensland. 14 (4): 149–160.
- Petrie, Tom; Petrie, Constance Campbell (1904). Tom Petrie's reminiscences of early Queensland (PDF). Brisbane: Watson, Ferguson & Co – via Internet Archive.