1931 China floods
Meteorological history | |
---|---|
Duration | July–November 1931 (depending on river) |
Overall effects | |
Fatalities | 422,499–4,000,000[1] |
Areas affected | Central and eastern China |
The 1931 China floods, or the 1931 Yangtze–Huai River floods, occurred from June to August 1931 in
Fatality estimates vary widely. A field survey by the
Meteorological causes and physical consequences
From 1928 to 1930, China was afflicted by a long drought.[6] The subsequent winter of 1930–31 was particularly harsh, creating large deposits of snow and ice in mountainous areas. In early 1931, melting snow and ice flowed downstream and arrived in the middle course of the Yangtze during a period of heavy spring rain. Ordinarily, the region experienced three periods of high water during the spring, summer and fall, respectively; however, in early 1931, there was a single continuous deluge. By June, those living in low areas had already been forced to abandon their homes.[7] The summer was also characterized by extreme cyclonic activity. In July of that year alone, nine cyclones hit the region, which was significantly above the average of two per year.[8] Four weather stations along the Yangtze River reported rain totalling over 600 mm (24 in) for the month.[8] The water flowing through the Yangtze reached its highest level since record-keeping began in the mid-nineteenth century.[7] That autumn, further heavy rain added to the problem and some rivers did not return to their normal courses until November.
The floods inundated approximately 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi) – an area equivalent in size to England and half of Scotland, or the states of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut combined.
Death toll and damage
This flood is frequently featured in the list of disasters in China by death toll, sometimes topping lists of the world’s deadliest disasters.[1]
At the time the government estimated that 25 million people had been affected by the flood.[13] Historians since have suggested that the true number may have been as many as 53 million.[14] Estimated death tolls also vary widely. Contemporary studies conducted by John Lossing Buck allege that at least 150,000 people had drowned in the first few months of the flood, with hundreds of thousands more dying of starvation and disease over the following year. Using contemporary media reports, Chinese historians led by Li Wenhai have calculated the death toll at 422,420.[11] Some Western sources allege that the death toll was between 3.7 and 4 million people based on their own claims of famine and disease.[15][6] The Tanka people who traditionally live on boats along the Yangtze suffered greatly from the flooding.[16]
The flood destroyed huge amounts of housing and farmland. Throughout the entire Yangtze Valley, around 15% of the wheat and rice crops were destroyed, with the proportion being much higher in the flood-affected areas.
As well as inundating rural areas, the flood caused widespread destruction to a number of cities. Refugees had been arriving in the city of Wuhan since the late spring. When the city itself was inundated in the early summer and after a catastrophic dike failure at just before 6:00 AM on 27 July,[20]: 270 around 782,189 urban citizens and rural refugees were left homeless. The flood covered an area of 83 square kilometres (32 sq mi) and the city was flooded under many feet of water for close to three months.[20]: 269–270 Large numbers gathered on flood islands throughout the city, with 30,000 sheltering on a railway embankment in central Hankou. With little food and a complete breakdown in sanitation, thousands soon began to succumb to diseases.[19]
There was no warning, only a sudden great wall of water. Most of Wuhan's buildings in those days were only one story high, and for many people there was no escape- they died by the tens of thousands. ... I was just coming off duty at the company's main office, a fairly new three-story building near the center of town ... When I heard the terrible noise and saw the wall of water coming, I raced to the top story of the building. ... I was in one of the tallest and strongest buildings left standing. At that time no one knew whether the water would subside or rise even higher.
— Jin Shilong, Senior Engineer at the Hubei Flood Prevention Agency, [20]: 270
The city of Nanjing, then the capital of Republican China, was also severely affected by the disaster.[8] One of the most disastrous single events during the flood occurred on 25 August 1931, when the water rushing through the Grand Canal washed away dikes near Gaoyou Lake. In Gaoyou County alone, 18,000 people drowned and 58,000 died due to famine and diseases the following year.[21]
Rebuilding of dikes at Lake Gaoyou
Government reactions
Republican Era (1930s–1940s)
The 1931 flood was one of the first major tests for the
As part of an anti-superstition campaign by the Kuomintang Government, a
Communist Era (1949–present)
In 1953, after the end of the Chinese Civil War,
Scientists and officials who raised doubts, such as
See also
Footnotes
- ^ a b Courtney 2018, p. 249.
- ^ Buck 1932, p. [page needed], as cited in National Flood Relief Commission 1933, p. 150.[failed verification]
- ^ The figure of 140,000 is also cited in Hsu, Immanuel C. Y. (1990). The Rise of Modern China (4 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 546–547.
- ^ National Flood Relief Commission 1933, the caption of photo 11, between page 90 and 91. Also cited by Courtney 2018, p. 249.
- ^ National Flood Relief Commission 1933, pp. 299–300. Also cited by Courtney 2018, p. 87.
- ^ ISBN 1-55963-919-9. p. 252.
- ^ a b Courtney 2018, p. 54.
- ^ ISBN 0-415-93388-9. pp. xvii, 61–70.
- ^ National Flood Relief Commission 1933, p. 4.
- ISBN 0-312-42337-3.
- ^ a b Li 1994, pp. 230–231.
- ^ National Flood Relief Commission 1933, p. 303, Appendix VII-12 Number of people sick per 1000 persons.
- ^ National Flood Relief Commission 1933, pp. 5, 203.
- ^ Li 1994, p. [page needed].
- ^ "Dealing with the Deluge". PBS NOVA Online. 26 March 1996. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
- ^ "NOAA'S top global weather, water and climate events of the 20th century". NOAA.gov. 13 December 1999. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
- ISBN 0-19-828777-1.
- ^ Courtney 2018, pp. 64–65.
- ^ a b Courtney 2018, p. 76.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87044-437-1.
- ^ "被遗忘的1931年中国水灾" (in Chinese). Tsinghua University Institute of Qing History. Archived from the original on 2016-04-03. Retrieved 2019-01-20.
- ^ 胡彬、季云华 (8 December 2009). "追忆苏皖边区政府参议会驻会议员、著名爱国人士----王叔相先生". 苏皖边区政府旧址纪念馆. Archived from the original on 2020-05-10.
- ^ Steve Harnsberger (7 September 2006). "Forgotten history revealed" (PDF). Shanghai Star. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-05-05.
- ^ Wu Yingying. "China's worst natural disaster". Shanghai Star. Archived from the original on 2006-01-17.
- ^ Beth Ashley (30 January 2006). "Flood of memories" (PDF). Marin Independent Journal. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-05-05.
- ^ Steve Harnsberger (25 September 2007). "The Great Floods Of 1931 At Gaoyou: August 26, 1931 – The Floods Come". AboutGaoyou.com. Archived from the original on 2020-05-10. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
- ^ National Flood Relief Commission 1933, p. 11.
- ^ Courtney 2018, p. 15.
- ^ ISBN 0-8476-8338-9. pp. 168–169.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-12-417019-3.
- ISBN 978-1-4665-9944-4 – via Google Books.
References
- Official report available free online
- On food relief, refugee camps, farm rehabilitation, sanitation, etc
- National Flood Relief Commission (1933). Report of the National Flood Relief Commission. Shanghai: The Comacrib Press – via Archive.org.
- On the engineering aspect of dyke breaching and their reconstruction
- National Flood Relief Commission (1933). 国民政府救済水災委員会工振報告 (in Chinese). Shanghai: Chung Hwa Book – via Japanese National Diet Library's digital collection.
- National Flood Relief Commission (1933). 国民政府救済水災委員会工振報告 (in Chinese). Shanghai:
- Officially-sponsored report by universities
-
- University of Nanking.
- Monograph
- Courtney, Chris (2018). The Nature of Disaster in China The 1931 Yangzi River Flood. ISBN 9781108278362.
- Ni, Wencai (2006). A documentary on uncovering the history of the 1931 Great Flood in Gaoyou and dyke reconstruction. Beijing: Beijing Workers Press. (倪文才. 1931年高邮特大洪灾和运堤修复历史再现纪实. 2006. 北京: 中国工人出版社.)
- 李文海; 程歗; 刘仰东; 夏明方 (December 1994). 中国近代十大灾荒. 上海人民出版社. ("The Ten Great Disasters of Modern China" by Li Wenhai et al.)
External links
- "The 1931 Central China Flood" DisasterHistory.Org (English and Chinese Versions)
- "An Analysis of Flood and Social Risks Based on the 1931 Changjiang & Huai River Flood During the Republic of China". ILIB.cn.
- "Extremely heavy meiyu over the Yangtze and Huaihe vaneies in 1931" 1931年江淮异常梅雨 (in Chinese). CQVIP.com.