Chinese Civil War
Chinese Civil War | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the interwar period, the Chinese Communist Revolution and the Cold War (from 1947) | |||||||||
Communist troops at the Battle of Siping; National Revolutionary Army troops at the Shangdang Campaign; Chiang Kai-shek inspecting soldiers; ROCA members board a ship to retreat to Taiwan in 1949; Mao Zedong in the 1930s; CCP general Su Yu inspecting the troops shortly before the Menglianggu campaign | |||||||||
| |||||||||
Belligerents | |||||||||
1927–1936: |
1927–1936:
| ||||||||
1945–1949:
|
1945–1949: | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
(Director-General of the Kuomintang)
Other leaders
|
(Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party)
Other leaders | ||||||||
Strength | |||||||||
2 million (regular) 2.3 million (militia) (June 1946)[2][3][4] |
1.2 million (regular) 2.6 million (militia) (July 1945)[3][5] | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||
1.5–1.7 million (1945–1949)[6][4][7] 370,000~ killed[8][9] |
2.8+ million (1945–1949) 263,800 killed 190,000 missing 850,000 wounded (1945–1949)[10][6] | ||||||||
Chinese Civil War | |
---|---|
Hanyu Pinyin | Guó-Gòng Nèizhàn |
Bopomofo | ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄍㄨㄥˋ ㄋㄟˋ ㄓㄢˋ |
Wade–Giles | Kuo2-Kung4 Nei4-chan4 |
Tongyong Pinyin | Guó-Gòng Nèi-jhàn |
IPA | [kwǒ.kʊ̂ŋ nêɪ.ʈʂân] |
Wu | |
Romanization | koh-gon-ne-tsoe |
Yue: Cantonese | |
Jyutping | gwok3 gung6 noi6 zin3 |
IPA | [kʷɔːk̚˧ koŋ˨ nɔːi˨ tsiːn˧] |
Southern Min | |
Hokkien POJ | kok-kiōng lāi-chiàn |
Part of People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. |
Outline of the Chinese Civil War |
Communism portal |
The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China and the forces of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with armed conflict continuing intermittently from 1 August 1927 until 7 December 1949, resulting in a CCP victory and control of mainland China in the Chinese Communist Revolution.
The war is generally divided into the First Kuomintang-Communist Civil War and the Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War with an interlude: from August 1927 to 1937, the First United Front collapsed during the Northern Expedition, and the Nationalists controlled most of China. From 1937 to 1945, hostilities were mostly put on hold as the Second United Front fought the Second Sino-Japanese War with eventual help from the Allies of World War II, although co-operation between the KMT and CCP during this time was minimal and armed clashes between the groups were common. Exacerbating the divisions within China further was the formation of the Wang Jingwei regime, sponsored by Japan and ostensibly led by Wang Jingwei, which was established to nominally govern the regions of China that came under Japanese occupation.
The civil war resumed as soon as it became apparent that Japanese defeat was imminent, with the CCP gaining the upper hand in the second phase of the war from 1945 to 1949.
The CCP gained control of mainland China and
Background
History of the Republic of China |
---|
Taiwan portal |
Following the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen assumed the presidency of the newly formed Republic of China, and was shortly thereafter succeeded by Yuan Shikai.[15][page needed] Yuan was frustrated in a short-lived attempt to restore monarchy in China, and China fell into power struggle after his death in 1916.
The
In 1923, Sun sent
Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis.[17] The CCP itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925.[20] As of 1923, the KMT had 50,000 members.[20]
However, after Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CCP. The CCP then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting.
Then, in March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang's power. Soon, the KMT would be clearly divided.
Throughout this time, the Soviet Union sent money and spies to support the CCP. Without their support, the communist party likely would have failed. This is evidenced by documents showing other communist parties in China at the time, one with as many as 10,000 members, which all failed without support from the Soviet Union.[21][additional citation(s) needed]
Shanghai Massacre and Northern Expedition
In early 1927, the KMT-CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the KMT decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to Wuhan, where communist influence was strong.[20] However, Chiang and Li Zongren, whose armies defeated the warlord Sun Chuanfang, moved eastward toward Jiangxi. The leftists rejected Chiang's demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT, and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People by taking orders from the Soviet Union. According to Mao Zedong, Chiang's tolerance of the CCP in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased.[22]
On 7 April, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting, during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed. On 12 April, in Shanghai, many Communist members in the KMT were purged
History
Communist insurgency (1927–1937)
Second National Revolutionary War (Mainland China) | |
---|---|
Hanyu Pinyin | Dìèrcì Guónèi Gémìng Zhànzhēng |
On 1 August 1927, the Communist Party launched an
Attempts were later made by the CCP to take the cities of
This marked the beginning of a ten-year armed struggle, known in mainland China as the "Ten-Year Civil War" (十年内战) which ended with the
Finally, in late 1934, Chiang launched a
In October 1934, the CCP took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses (manned by the forces of a warlord ally of Chiang Kai-shek's, rather than regular KMT troops) and broke out of the encirclement. The warlord armies were reluctant to challenge Communist forces for fear of losing their own men and did not pursue the CCP with much fervor. In addition, the main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating Zhang Guotao's army, which was much larger than Mao's. The massive military retreat of Communist forces lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12,500 km (25,000 Li); it became known as the Long March.[34]
This military retreat was undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, to evade the pursuit or attack of the Kuomintang army. It consisted of a series of marches, during which numerous Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. Over the course of the march from Jiangxi the First Front Army, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by Chiang Kai-Shek's troops as their stronghold was in Jiangxi. The Communists, under the command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, "escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed over 9,000 kilometers over 370 days." The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, and then northwards towards Shaanxi. "In November 1935, shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai's leading position in the Red Army. Following a major reshuffling of official roles, Mao became the chairman of the Military Commission, with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice-chairmen." This marked Mao's position as the pre-eminent leader of the Party, with Zhou in second position to him.[citation needed]
The march ended when the CCP reached the interior of Shaanxi. Zhang Guotao's army (Red 4th Front Army), which took a different route through northwest China, was largely destroyed by the forces of Chiang Kai-shek and his Chinese Muslim allies, the Ma clique. Along the way, the Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords, while recruiting peasants and the poor, solidifying its appeal to the masses. Of the 90,000–100,000 people who began the Long March from the Soviet Chinese Republic, only around 7,000–8,000 made it to Shaanxi.[35] The remnants of Zhang's forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi, but with his army destroyed, Zhang, even as a founding member of the CCP, was never able to challenge Mao's authority. Essentially, the great retreat made Mao the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party.
The Kuomintang used Khampa troops—who were former bandits—to battle the Communist Red Army as it advanced and to undermine local warlords who often refused to fight Communist forces to conserve their own strength. The KMT enlisted 300 "Khampa bandits" into its Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government to penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui. The government was seeking to exert full control over frontier areas against the warlords. Liu had refused to battle the Communists in order to conserve his army. The Consolatory Commission forces were used to battle the Red Army, but they were defeated when their religious leader was captured by the Communists.[36]
In 1936, Zhou Enlai and
-
The situation in China in 1929: After the Northern Expedition, the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government.
-
Map showing the communist-controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns
-
Route(s) taken by Communist forces during the Long March
-
A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March
-
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Commander-in-Chief of the National Revolutionary Army, emerged from the Northern Expedition as the leader of the Republic of China
-
NRA soldiers marching
-
NRA troops firing artillery at Communist forces
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
During Japan's invasion and
On 12 December 1936, the disgruntled Zhang and Yang conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CCP. The incident became known as the Xi'an Incident.[38] Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fight the Japanese.[38] In 1937, Japan launched its full-scale invasion of China and its well-equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China.
The alliance of CCP and KMT was in name only.
The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified. Chiang demanded in December 1940 that the CCP's New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces, due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area. Under intense pressure, the New Fourth Army commanders complied. The following year they were ambushed by KMT forces during their evacuation, which led to several thousand deaths.[40] It also ended the Second United Front, formed earlier to fight the Japanese.[40]
As clashes between the CCP and KMT intensified, countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war. After the
In general, developments in the Second Sino-Japanese War were to the advantage of the CCP, as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese-occupied areas. However, the KMT had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns, since it was the legal Chinese government, a factor which proved costly to Chiang Kai-shek and his troops. Japan launched its last major offensive against the KMT, Operation Ichi-Go, in 1944, which resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang's forces.[42] The CCP also suffered fewer losses through its guerrilla tactics.[43] By the end of the war, the Red Army had grown to more than 1.3 million members, with a separate militia of over 2.6 million. About one hundred million people lived in CCP-controlled zones.
-
Japanese occupation (red) of eastern China near the end of the war, and Communist bases (striped)
Immediate post-war clashes (1945–1946)
Under the terms of the Japanese unconditional surrender dictated by the Allies, Japanese troops were to surrender to KMT troops but not to the CCP, which was present in some of the occupied areas.[44] In Manchuria, however, where the KMT had no forces, the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union. Chiang Kai-shek reminded Japanese troops to remain at their posts to receive the KMT, but Communist forces soon began taking surrenders from the Japanese and fighting those who resisted.[44] General Wedemeyer of the United States Army became alarmed at these developments and wanted seven American divisions to be sent to China, but General Marshall replied that it should not be given priority over Japan and Korea.[45]
The first post-war peace negotiation, attended by both Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, was in Chongqing from 28 August to 10 October 1945. Chiang entered the meeting at an advantage because he had recently signed a friendly treaty with the Soviet Union while the Communists were still forcing the Japanese to surrender in some places. Mao was accompanied by American ambassador Patrick J. Hurley, who was devoted to Chiang but also wanted to ensure Mao's safety in light of the past history between the two Chinese leaders.[46] It concluded with the signing of the Double Tenth Agreement.[47] Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction, but the conference did not produce any concrete results.[47] Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress, until the agreement was reached in January 1946. However, large campaigns and full-scale confrontations between the CCP and Chiang's troops were temporarily avoided.
In the last month of World War II in East Asia, Soviet forces launched the huge Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation against the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria and along the Chinese-Mongolian border.[48] This operation destroyed the Kwantung Army in just three weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces. Consequently, the 700,000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered. Later in the year Chiang Kai-shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CCP takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure.[49] He therefore made a deal with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best-trained men and modern materiel into the region. However, the Soviets refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory and spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base (worth up to $2 billion) and shipping it back to their war-ravaged country.[49] KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China, while the countryside was already dominated by the CCP. On 15 November 1945, the KMT began a campaign to prevent the CCP from strengthening its already strong base.[50] At the same time, however, the return of the KMT also brought widespread graft and corruption, with an OSS officer remarking that the only winners were the Communists.[51]
In the winter of 1945–46, Joseph Stalin commanded Marshal Rodion Malinovsky to give Mao Zedong most Imperial Japanese Army weapons that were captured.[52]
Chiang Kai-shek's forces pushed as far as Chinchow (Jinzhou) by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. This was followed by a Communist offensive on the Shandong Peninsula that was largely successful, as all of the peninsula, except what was controlled by the US, fell to the Communists.[50] The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full-scale war between CCP and KMT forces broke out on 26 June 1946. China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years.[53]
-
TheSoviet Red Army invaded Manchuriain August 1945.
-
Chinese Communist soldiers march north to occupy rural Manchuria, 1945.
Resumed fighting (1946–1949)
Background and disposition of forces
Third National Revolutionary War (Mainland China) | |
---|---|
Hanyu Pinyin | Zhōngguó Rénmín Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng |
By the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the power of the Communist Party grew considerably. Their main force grew to 1.2 million troops, backed with additional militia of 2 million, totalling 3.2 million troops. Their "Liberated Zone" in 1945 contained 19 base areas, including one-quarter of the country's territory and one-third of its population; this included many important towns and cities. Moreover, the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists, who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well.[54]
In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang, the
Although
After the war with the Japanese ended, Chiang Kai-shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender.[54] The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the Northeast (Manchuria). President Harry S. Truman was very clear about what he described as "using the Japanese to hold off the Communists". In his memoirs he writes:
It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists. We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send Marines to guard the seaports.
— President Truman[61]
Using the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender", business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army.[54] They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5%.[54]
Hyperinflation meant those employed in the Kuomintang forces lost the purchasing power of their pay.[62]: 204 This resulted in corruption and the embezzlement of supplies which disappeared into the barter economy.[62]: 204 Ordinary Kuomintang soldiers were often malnourished and desertion was common.[62]: 204
The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces. About 50,000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hebei and Shandong in Operation Beleaguer. The US equipped and trained KMT troops, and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist-controlled areas.[54] According to William Blum, American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies, and loans were made to the KMT.[63] Within less than two years after the Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the US—most of which was military aid.[54]
Outbreak of war
-
Situation in 1947
-
Situation in the fall of 1948
-
Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949
-
Situation in April to October 1949
As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government and the Communist Party failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in mainland China and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation" (Chinese: 解放战争; pinyin: Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched a large-scale assault on Communist territory in North China with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops).[54]
Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CCP executed a "passive defense" strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CCP also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CCP. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.[54]
In March 1947, the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing Yan'an, the capital of the
By late 1948, the CCP captured the northern cities of
The capture of large KMT units provided the CCP with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined-arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948, the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an.
The
After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CCP destroyed 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million
The Kuomintang made several last-ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists.[72] Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.[73]
Pushing south
On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong
A PRC attempt to take the ROC-controlled island of Quemoy was thwarted in the Battle of Kuningtou, halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan.[75] In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.
The Communists' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the
Aftermath and unsolved issues (1949–present)
Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People's Liberation Army, and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand. US President Harry S. Truman announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC.[77] Truman, seeking to exploit the possibility of a Titoist-style Sino-Soviet split, announced in his United States Policy toward Formosa that the US would obey the Cairo Declaration's designation of Taiwan as Chinese territory and would not assist the Nationalists. However, the Communist leadership was not aware of this change of policy, instead becoming increasingly hostile to the US.[78] The situation quickly changed after the sudden onset of the Korean War in June 1950. This led to changing political climate in the US, and President Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet to sail to the Taiwan Strait as part of the containment policy against potential Communist advance.[79]
In June 1949, the ROC declared a "closure" of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships. The closure was from a point north of the mouth of Min River in Fujian to the mouth of the Liao River in Liaoning.[80] Since mainland China's railroad network was underdeveloped, north–south trade depended heavily on sea lanes. ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen.
During
Winning China proper in 1950, also after
After the ROC complained to the
In the end, the Communist military forces suffered 1.3 million combat casualties in the 1945–1949 phase of the war: 260,000 killed, 190,000 missing, and 850,000 wounded, discounting irregulars. Nationalist casualties in the same phase were recorded after the war by the PRC 5,452,700 regulars and 2,258,800 irregulars.[10]
After the formation of the PRC, the PRC government named the Western nations, led by the U.S., as the biggest threat to its national security.[84] Basing this judgment on multiple factors, including the idea of a Chinese century of humiliation at the hands of Western powers beginning in the mid-19th century,[85] U.S. support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War,[86] and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries,[87] the PRC Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the U.S.' crusade against Communism.[88] As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the PRC leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery.[89]
Taiwan Strait tensions
Though viewed as a military liability by the US, the ROC viewed its remaining islands in
The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces, leading to intense artillery bombardment of Kinmen by the PRC and Xiamen by the ROC, and ended on November of the same year.[80] PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships. Though the US rejected Chiang Kai-shek's proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries, it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti-aircraft missiles to the ROC. It also provided amphibious assault ships to land supplies, as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor. On 7 September, the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing.
The third crisis occurred in 1995–96. The PRC responded to Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui's visit to the United States, and the U.S. recognition of Lee as a representative of Taiwan, with military exercises. The exercises were also meant to deter Taiwanese voters from supporting Lee in the 1996 election; Lee won the election. Two U.S. aircraft carriers were deployed during the crisis; they were not attacked and deescalation followed.[91]
US Speaker of the House
Political fallout
On 25 October 1971, the United Nations General Assembly admitted the PRC and expelled the ROC, which had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai-shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.[101]
By 1984, PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their hostilities through diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991.[102] Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term" during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders". The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union", which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally, the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents: the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethnic organisations". By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.[103]
Under the new ROC president
With the election in 2000 of
With the election of pro-mainland President
Reasons for the Communist victory
The Communists' victory over the Nationalists is regarded as one of the most impressive twentieth century insurgent victories.[105]: 1 Historians and political scientists cite a number of factors, including the Communist Party's success at mobilizing mass support and the shortcomings of the Nationalist government.[105]: 1
Poor governance by Nationalists
Almost all studies of the failure of the Nationalist government identify hyperinflation as a major factor in the government's collapse.[62]: 5 The Nationalist military and the government's civilian employees were most impacted by hyperinflation which in turn prompted widespread corruption and pilfering.[62]: 5 Little funding reached enlisted soldiers, who were typically malnourished and poorly equipped.[62]: 9 Desertion was common.[62]: 9
The historian Rana Mitter writes that a lack of trust in the Nationalist government developed, as it was increasingly seen as "corrupt, vindictive, and with no overall vision of what China under its rule should look like".[106] Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948: "After the fall of Kaifeng our conditions worsened and became more serious. I now realized that the main reason our nation has collapsed, time after time throughout our history, was not because of superior power used by our external enemies, but because of disintegration and rot from within."[107]
Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-shek and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists targeted different groups, such as peasants, and brought them to their side.[108] After 1945, the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of hyperinflation and the failure of price controls by the ROC government and financial reforms; the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 1948[109] and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities' middle classes.
United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson described the Nationalists as "corrupt, reactionary, and inefficient." He believed that the Nationalists had displayed both political inadequacy as well as "the grossest incompetence ever experienced by any military command," and that the Communists "did not create this condition," but skillfully exploited the opportunity it provided.[110]
Popular support for Communists and cohesion
In the meantime, the Communists continued their land reform programs, winning the support of the population in the countryside. This was a decisive factor in the Communists' success.[111] Millions of peasants who obtained land through the movement joined the People's Liberation Army or assisted in its logistical networks.[111] According to historian Brian DeMare, land redistribution was a critical factor because it linked the interests of peasants in the north and northeast to the Communists' success.[112] Ultimately, the Communists obtained the greatest popular support of any insurgency in modern history.[105]: 3
An important advantage of the Communists was the "extraordinary cohesion" within its top leadership. This cohesion not only secured it from defections during difficult times but also facilitated "communications and top level debates over tactics". The charismatic style of leadership of Mao Zedong created a "unity of purpose" and a "unity of command" which the KMT lacked. Apart from that, the CCP had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit; this was also derived from their propaganda skills that had also been decentralised successfully by portraying their opponents as "enemies of all groups of Chinese" and itself as "defenders of the nation" and people (given the backdrop of the war with Japan).[113]
International factors
Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the
Atrocities
During the war, both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides.
Nationalist atrocities
Over several years after the 1927 Shanghai massacre, the Kuomintang killed between 300,000 and one million people, primarily peasants, in anti-communist campaigns as part of the White Terror.[127][128] During the White Terror, the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to foot binding, on the presumption that such "non-traditional" women were radicals.[128] Nationalist forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace.[128]
Torture, rape, and collective punishment were common Nationalist practices during its counter-insurgency campaigns.[105]: 91–92 The Nationalists uprooted and moved entire communities in an effort to more easily monitor Communist activities.[105]: 92
From 1946 to 1949, the Nationalists arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents via the Sino-American Cooperative Organization.[129]
Communist atrocities
During the December 1930 Futian incident, the communists executed 2,000 to 3,000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong.[130]
Between 1931 and 1934 in the
During the Siege of Changchun, the People's Liberation Army implemented a military blockade on the KMT-held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade;[134] this blockade caused the starvation of tens[134] to 150[135] thousand civilians. The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China.[136]
At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946, Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class, but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords.[137] The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants. Party work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords, rich, middle, poor, and landless peasants. Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process, however, rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power.[138] The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure.[139] Those condemned as landlords were buried alive, dismembered, strangled and shot.[140] In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign, the Kuomintang helped establish the "Huanxiang Tuan" (還鄉團), or Homecoming Legion, which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas, as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs.[141] The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949.[141]
See also
- Outline of the Chinese Civil War
- Timeline of the Chinese Civil War
- List of wars involving the People's Republic of China
- Timeline of the Chinese Civil War
- Campaign to suppress bandits in northeast China
- Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Wuping
- Campaign to suppress bandits in southwestern China
- Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Eastern China
References
- ^ ISBN 9781598844153. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-8131-7224-8. Archivedfrom the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
- ^ ISBN 1-56324-246-X. Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
- ^ ISBN 9788171565153. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
- ^ 曹, 前发. "毛泽东的独创:"兵民是胜利之本"". 中国共产党新闻网. 人民网-中国共产党新闻网. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
- ^ ]
- ^ Ho. Studies in the Population of China. p. 253.
- ^ Ho. Studies in the Population of China. p. 253.
- ISBN 978-0-393-08192-3.
- ^ a b The History of the Chinese People's Liberation Army. Beijing: People's Liberation Army Press. 1983.
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
- ISBN 978-0810878730. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
- ^ Green, Leslie C. The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict. p. 79.
- ^ OCLC 45248282.
- ^ a b c "Milestones: 1945–1952 – Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Archived from the original on 19 May 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
- ^ ISBN 0-275-95566-4. p. 205.
- ^ ISBN 1-4067-5818-3). p. 126.
- ISBN 0-275-96080-3. p. 7.
- ^ ISBN 0-674-11673-9.
- ^ Kuhn, Robert (2005). The man who changed China: the life and legacy of Jiang Zemin. Crown Publishers.
- ISBN 0-8047-2182-3.
- ISBN 0-415-93914-3.
- ISBN 0-8047-5001-7.
- ISBN 0-275-97259-3.
- ISBN 0-231-10938-5. p. 328.
- ^ ISBN 9971-69-093-4.
- ISBN 0-415-77003-3.
- ISBN 0-8248-2518-7.
- ^ Clark, Anne, Klein, Donald. eds. (1971). Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism (Harvard University Press), p. 134.
- ISBN 0-415-21577-3.
- ^ ISBN 0-275-96768-9. p. 58.
- from the original on 12 December 2022. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
- ^ ISBN 0-7391-0406-3. pp. 58, 65.
- ISBN 0-8047-0827-4. p. 68.
- ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
A force of about 300 soldiers was organized and augmented by recruiting local Khampa bandits into the army. The relationship between the Consolatory Commission and Liu Wenhui seriously deteriorated in early 1936, when the Norla Hutuktu
- ^ Background of Xi'an Incident. Cultural China. Retrieved June 4, 2021.
- ^ ISBN 0-231-12754-5.
- ^ a b c Buss, Claude Albert. (1972). Stanford Alumni Association. The People's Republic of China and Richard Nixon. United States.
- ^ ISBN 0-231-11276-9.
- ISBN 0-807-84932-4.
- ISBN 0-521-84256-5.
- OCLC 1078879585.
Though it is also worth pointing out that, in practice, Mao's recipe for guerrilla manoeuvres played a limited role in Chinese revolutionary wars during the 1930s and '40s. Nationalist armies carried most of the resistance to the Japanese during the Second World War, and Chinese Communist victory in the final years of the civil war up to 1949 was won through field battles that the Soviets taught the CCP how to fight.
- ^ ISBN 0-415-36447-7. p. 338.
- ISBN 9780375509155.
- ISBN 9780375509155.
- ^ ISBN 0-313-32004-7. p. 201.
- ISBN 1-4251-2544-1.
- ^ a b Lilley, James. China hands: nine decades of adventure, espionage, and diplomacy in Asia. PublicAffairs, New York, 2004
- ^ ISBN 0-313-24308-5.
- ISBN 9780375509155.
- Sina Books. Archived from the originalon 26 September 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
- ISBN 962-209-610-7.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Nguyễn Anh Thái (chief author); Nguyễn Quốc Hùng; Vũ Ngọc Oanh; Trần Thị Vinh; Đặng Thanh Toán; Đỗ Thanh Bình (2002). Lịch sử thế giới hiện đại (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City: Giáo Dục Publisher. pp. 320–322. 8934980082317.
{{cite book}}
:|last=
has generic name (help) - ^ Michael M Sheng, Battling Western Imperialism, Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 132–135
- ^ Liu, Shiao Tang (1978). Min Kuo Ta Shih Jih Chih. Vol. 2. Taipei: Zhuan Chi Wen Shuan. p. 735.
- ^ The New York Times, 12 January 1947, p. 44.
- ^ Zeng Kelin, Zeng Kelin jianjun zishu (General Zeng Kelin Tells His Story), Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, 1997. pp. 112–113
- ^ Ray Huang, cong dalishi jiaodu du Jiang Jieshi riji (Reading Chiang Kai-shek's diary from a macro-history perspective), China Times Publishing Press, Taipei, 1994, pp. 441–443
- ^ Lung Ying-tai, dajiang dahai 1949, Commonwealth Publishing Press, Taipei, 2009, p. 184
- ^ Harry S.Truman, Memoirs, Vol. Two: Years of Trial and Hope, 1946–1953 (Great Britain 1956), p. 66
- ^ ISBN 978-1-009-29761-5.
- ^ p. 23, U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William Blum, Zed Books 2004 London.
- ISBN 1-58648-136-3.
- ^ ISBN 0-8047-4484-X. pp. 192–193.
- ^ Pomfret, John. "Red Army Starved 150,000 Chinese Civilians, Books Says" Seattle Times 2 October 2009 Accessed: 2009-10-02. Archived WebSite
- ^ ISBN 0-415-21473-4.
- ^ ISBN 0-7656-1088-4. p. 63.
- ^ Donggil Kim, "Stalin and the Chinese Civil War." Cold War History 10.2 (2010): 185–202.
- ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
China's far northwest.23 A simultaneous proposal suggested that, with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage, at least three army divisions of anti-Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China.
- ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
(tusi) from the Sichuan-Qinghai border; and Su Yonghe, a Khampa native-chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai- Tibetan border. According to Nationalist intelligence reports, these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars.
- ISBN 0-415-34584-7. p. 376.
- ISBN 0-231-13002-3. p. 2.
- ISBN 0-521-24337-8. p. 820.
- ^ "Harry S Truman, 'Statement on Formosa', January 5, 1950". University of Southern California. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
- ISBN 9780253112378.
- ISBN 0-8157-1288-X
- ^ ISBN 1-85043-842-0. pp. 155, 115–120, 139–145
- from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2022 – via JSTOR.
- ISBN 978-1-107-02323-9. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
Among them, 712.000 counterrevolutionaries were executed, 1.29 million were imprisoned, and 1.2 million were subject to control at various times.
- ISBN 0-465-09813-4p. 73
- ISBN 978-0231100250.
- ^ Chen 1994, p. 22.
- ^ Chen 1994, p. 41.
- ^ Chen 1994, p. 21.
- ^ Chen 1994, p. 19.
- ^ Chen 1994, pp. 25–26, 93.
- ^ McCauley, Kevin (13 September 2016). "PLA Yijiangshan Joint Amphibious Operation: Past is Prologue". Retrieved 12 April 2024.
- ^ Kuhn, Anthony; Feng, Emily (2 August 2022). "What 3 past Taiwan Strait crises can teach us about U.S.-China tensions today". www.npr.org. Archived from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
- ^ Pollard, Martin Quin (7 April 2022). "China warns U.S. against House Speaker Pelosi visiting Taiwan". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
- ^ Chiacu, Doina (8 April 2022). "U.S. House Speaker Pelosi is latest U.S. official to test positive for COVID". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
- ^ Mason, Jeff; Martina, Michael (1 August 2022). "White House: U.S. will not be intimidated by China; Pelosi has right to visit Taiwan". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
- ^ "Nancy Pelosi's plan to visit Taiwan prompts outrage from China". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022.
- ^ Китай-Тайвань: на тлі можливого візиту Пелосі зростає напруження [China-Taiwan: Tensions rise amid possible Pelosi visit]. BBC News Україна (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 2 August 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
- ^ Ненсі Пелосі летить на Тайвань: що потрібно знати про кризу між США і Китаєм [Nancy Pelosi flies to Taiwan: what you need to know about the crisis between the USA and China]. unian.ua (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 1 August 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
- ^ Zheng, Sarah (2 August 2022). "China Plans Four Days of Military Drills in Areas Encircling Taiwan". Bloomberg. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
- ^ Davidson, Helen; Ni, Vincent (3 August 2022). "China to begin series of unprecedented live-fire drills off Taiwan coast". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
- ^ Lee, Yimou (4 August 2022). "China begins 'illegitimate, irresponsible' live-fire military drills - Taiwan". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
- ^ "People's Republic of China In, Taiwan Out, at U.N." The Learning Network. 25 October 2011. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
- ^ "Taiwan flashpoint". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
- ^ Decisive Encounters[permanent dead link] By Westad, Odd Arne. Stanford University Press, 21 Mar pp. 292–297 2003 (Google Books).
- ^ "历次台海危机内幕及其背后大国之间的博弈(图)". Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
- ^ OCLC 1141442704. Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
- ^ Trei, Lisa (9 March 2005). "Hoover's new archival acquisitions shed light on Chinese history". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 July 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
- ^ Odd Arne Westad, Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 (2012) p. 291.
- ^ "金圓券相關史料 – 財政部財政史料陳列室". Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
- ISBN 9781594202711.
- ^ S2CID 155992759.
- ISBN 978-1-5036-0952-5.
- ISBN 9780804744843. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2019.
- ^ Sun, Tung-hsun (1982). "Some Recent American Interpretations of Sino-American Relations of the Late 1940s: An Assessment" (PDF). Institute of European and American Studies, Academia Sinica. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
- ^ T.V. Soong – A Register of His Papers in the Hoover Institution Archives Archived 27 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine media.hoover.org
- ^ 轉載: 杜月笙的1931 (6) – 五湖煙景的日誌 – 倍可親. big5.backchina.com (in Traditional Chinese). Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
- ISBN 9780674054714. Archivedfrom the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
- ^ "Chiang's China". Worldif.economist.com. 1 July 2015. Archived from the original on 19 July 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
- ^ "China Without Tears: If Chiang Kai-Shek Hadn't Gambled in 1946". Uchronia.net. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
- ^ "Who Lost China? | EWTN". Archived from the original on 23 July 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
- ^ "ГЛАВА 35 ГРАЖДАНСКАЯ ВОЙНА В КИТАЕ". Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2020.
- ^ 青, 山. "苏联出兵之后中共对东北的争夺". 中国共产党新闻网. 人民网. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ^ 吕, 明辉. "朝鲜支援中国东北解放战争纪实". 通化师范学院. 白山出版社. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ^ 金, 东吉. "中国人民解放军中的朝鲜师回朝鲜问题新探". 香港中文大學. 中國研究服務中心. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ^ Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government.[ISBN missing][page needed]
- ^ Valentino, Benjamin A. Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cornell University Press. (2005). p. 88 [ISBN missing]
- ISBN 962-996-280-2. Retrieved 12 November 2022. p. 38
- ^ from the original on 12 December 2022. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
- OCLC 1141442704. Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
- ISBN 978-1566634588.
- S2CID 148775889.
- S2CID 211359950. Archived from the original(PDF) on 18 January 2022.
- ISBN 9781448156863. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2022. The Ruijin base, the seat of the first Red state, consisted of large parts of the provinces of Jiangxi and Fujian. These two provinces suffered the greatest population decrease in the whole of China from the year when the Communist state was founded, 1931, to the year after the Reds left, 1935. The population of Red Jiangxi fell by more than half a million – a drop of 20 percent. The fall in Red Fujian was comparable. Given that escapes were few, this means that altogether some 700,000 people died in the Ruijin base. A large part of these were murdered as “class enemies,” or were worked to death, or committed suicide, or died other premature deaths attributable to the regime.
- ^ ISBN 022641213X. [page needed]
- ^ "Pomfret, John (October 2, 2009). "Red Army Starved 150,000 Chinese Civilians, Books Says". Associated Press. The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on October 2, 2009. Retrieved October 2, 2009". Archived from the original on 25 October 2011.
- ISBN 1107054672. [page needed]
- ISBN 978-1503609525. [page needed]
- ^ Tanner (2015), pp. 134–135.
- ^ Saich The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party Outline Land Law of 1947 Archived 6 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-0-691-16502-8. Archivedfrom the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
- ^ a b Liu, Zaiyu (2002). 第二次國共戰爭時期的還鄉團 (PDF). Hong Kong: Twenty First Century Bimonthly. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
Further reading
- Cheng, Victor Shiu Chiang. "Imagining China's Madrid in Manchuria: The Communist Military Strategy at the Onset of the Chinese Civil War, 1945–1946." Modern China 31.1 (2005): 72–114.
- Chi, Hsi-sheng. Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–45 (U of Michigan Press, 1982).
- Dreyer, Edward L. China at War 1901–1949 (Routledge, 2014).
- Dupuy, Trevor N. The Military History of the Chinese Civil War (Franklin Watts, Inc., 1969).
- Eastman, Lloyd E. "Who lost China? Chiang Kai-shek testifies." China Quarterly 88 (1981): 658–668.
- Eastman, Lloyd E., et al. The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949 (Cambridge UP, 1991).
- Fenby, Jonathan. Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the China He Lost (2003).
- Ferlanti, Federica. "The New Life Movement at War: Wartime Mobilisation and State Control in Chongqing and Chengdu, 1938–1942" European Journal of East Asian Studies 11#2 (2012), pp. 187–212 online how Nationalist forces mobilized society
- Jian, Chen. "The Myth of America's “Lost Chance” in China: A Chinese Perspective in Light of New Evidence." Diplomatic History 21.1 (1997): 77–86.
- Lary, Diana. China's Civil War: A Social History, 1945–1949 (Cambridge UP, 2015). excerpt
- Levine, Steven I. "A new look at American mediation in the Chinese civil war: the Marshall mission and Manchuria." Diplomatic History 3.4 (1979): 349–376.
- Lew, Christopher R. The Third Chinese Revolutionary Civil War, 1945–49: An Analysis of Communist Strategy and Leadership (Routledge, 2009).
- Li, Xiaobing. China at War: An Encyclopedia (ABC-CLIO, 2012).
- Lynch, Michael. The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014).
- Mitter, Rana. "Research Note Changed by War: The Changing Historiography Of Wartime China and New Interpretations Of Modern Chinese History." Chinese Historical Review 17.1 (2010): 85–95.
- Nasca, David S. Western Influence on the Chinese National Revolutionary Army from 1925 to 1937. (Marine Corps Command And Staff Coll Quantico Va, 2013). online Archived 4 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Pepper, Suzanne. Civil war in China: the political struggle 1945–1949 (Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).
- Reilly, Major Thomas P. Mao Tse-Tung And Operational Art During The Chinese Civil War (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015) online Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
- Shen, Zhihua, and Yafeng Xia. Mao and the Sino–Soviet Partnership, 1945–1959: A New History. (Lexington Books, 2015).
- Tanner, Harold M. (2015), Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China: The Liao-Shen Campaign, 1948, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, advanced military history. excerpt
- Taylor, Jeremy E., and Grace C. Huang. "'Deep changes in interpretive currents'? Chiang Kai-shek studies in the post-cold war era." International Journal of Asian Studies 9.1 (2012): 99–121.
- Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo (Harvard University Press, 2009). biography of Chiang Kai-shek
- van de Ven, Hans (2017). China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China, 1937–1952. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674983502.
- Westad, Odd Arne (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804744843.
- Yick, Joseph K.S. Making Urban Revolution in China: The CPC-GMD Struggle for Beiping-Tianjin, 1945–49 (Routledge, 2015).
External links
- Summary of Chinese Civil War 1946–1949
- "Armored Car Like Oil Tanker Used by Chinese" Popular Mechanics, March 1930 article and photo of armoured train of Chinese Civil War
- Topographic maps of China Series L500, U.S. Army Map Service, 1954–
- Operational Art in the Chinese PLA's Huai Hai Campaign
- Postal Stamps of the Chinese Post-Civil War Era