20th century departures of foreign nationals from Egypt
The 20th century departures of foreign nationals from Egypt refers to the departure of foreign residents, primarily from European and
Background
The movement of the Mutamassirun ("Egyptianized"), which included the British and French, and also
Movements
Population of Egypt, 1907–60[2] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1907 | 1917 | 1927 | 1937 | 1947 | 1960 | |
Egyptians | 11,189,978 | 12,512,106 | 13,952,264 | 15,734,170 | 18,966,767 | 25,984,101 |
European nationals | ||||||
Greeks | 62,973 | 56,731 | 76,264 | 68,559 | 57,427 | 47,673 |
Italians | 34,926 | 40,198 | 52,462 | 47,706 | 27,958 | 14,089 |
British/Maltese | 20,356 | 24,354 | 34,169 | 31,523 | 28,246 | 25,175 |
French | 14,591 | 21,270 | 24,332 | 18,821 | 9,717 | |
Others | 16,664 | |||||
Other Communities | ||||||
Jews | 38,635 | 58,581 | 63,550 | 62,953 | 65,639 | 8,561 |
Armenians | 7,747 | 12,854 | 17,145 | 16,886 | – | – |
Syrians, Palestinians, and other Arab nationalities | 33,947 | 31,725 | 39,605 | 38,692 | – | 56,375 |
Greeks
Egyptian Greeks, often referred to as "Egyptiot Greeks" or simply "Egyptiots", were a prominent ethnic community in Egypt with roots dating back centuries. The exodus of Greeks from Egypt started before the
According to
With the establishment of Gamal Abdel Nasser's new regime, the rise of Pan-Arab nationalism, and the subsequent nationalization of many industries in 1961 and 1963, thousands of Greek employees emigrated.[2] Initially, Nasser assured the Greeks that they would not be harmed by his new policies due to their demonstrated loyalty during the Suez Crisis. Greek volunteers joined the Egyptian Army against British and French troops, and large Greek elements were visible during protests throughout the country. The Greeks believed they would be exempt from the new procedures against foreigners, as promised by Nasser. However, between 1956 and 1960, Nasser reneged on his assurances, and Greeks were included in the measures targeting foreigners. With financial assistance from the Greek government, many Greeks began to leave. As a result, the Greek population in Egypt decreased by 80%.[8]
Many Greek schools, churches, small communities, and institutions subsequently closed, but many continue to function to this day. The Nasser regime saw a significant exodus of Greeks from Egypt, but most of the minority left the country either before or after the period 1952–1970. The Arab-Israeli war of 1967 contributed to the uprooting of the sizable Greek community in the Suez Canal cities, especially in Port Said.[2]
Despite their departure, the legacy of the Egyptian Greeks continues to endure through cultural institutions, traditions, and the memories of those who once called Egypt home. Many of them emigrated to Australia, the United States, Canada, South Africa, Western Europe, and Greece. The term "Egyptio Greeks" serves as a reminder of their hybrid identity and the bonds that once connected them to both Egypt and Greece.
Italians
The Italian presence in Egypt grew significantly in the early nineteenth century due to two main factors: the country's role as a refuge for Italian political exiles and the demand for workers during the modernization projects under Muhammad Ali and Isma'il. However, the Italian community in Egypt faced challenges during the mid-twentieth century.[9]
Beginning before the
Italian educational institutions, notably Salesian schools, underwent transformations that contributed to the departure of Italians from Egypt. Changes in state-level educational policies and the 'Egyptianization' strategy, aimed at integrating Egyptians into the workforce, limited opportunities for Italian expatriates.[10] By the early 1960s, over 40,000 Italians had left Egypt, mostly as "repatriates" or "national refugees," seeking refuge in Italy due to their ties to the country.[11]
Jews
The status of Egyptian Jews and their acquisition of Egyptian nationality have been subjects of debate, particularly regarding their motivations and the wider context of suspicion towards minorities, particularly Jews. Mahmud Abd al-Daher, in his work Yahu' d Mis' r, argues that around 49% of Egyptian Jews held Egyptian nationality in 1897, primarily as Ottoman subjects residing locally. During the 19th century, Jewish immigrants arrived in Egypt from various
Egyptian Company Law 138, promulgated in 1947, is cited as evidence that Egyptian Jews declared themselves 'Egyptian' only when their economic positions were challenged. This law facilitated the 'Egyptianization' process, aiming to ensure Egyptian control over the economy.[12] The diminishing public activities of Egyptian Jews after the Palestine War (1948) and the Israeli Lavon Affair (1954) further fueled skepticism towards them and their role in Egypt's economy.[13]
The Lavon Affair, also known as
The operation commenced with
The complexity of Egyptian Jews' lives cannot be divorced from wider political events, such as the Palestine War of 1947-1948. Despite their contributions to Egyptian society, attitudes towards Egyptian Jews worsened over time, exacerbated by events like the Suez War and suspicions of involvement in Zionist activities.[17] Many Egyptian Jews faced increased insecurity and were arrested during the Suez War, leading to a significant decrease in their numbers in the years following the conflict.[12]
Reasons for migration among Egyptian Jews included discontent, incidents of property damage supported by nationalist and Islamist slogans,[17] and the worsening attitudes towards them following the Palestine War and the Lavon Affair. Despite their contributions to Egypt's economy and society, the deteriorating relationship between Egyptians and Egyptian Jews ultimately led to a significant decrease in the Jewish population in Egypt in the aftermath of the Suez War.[12]
Some 23,000—25,000 Jews out of 42,500 in Egypt left,[18] mainly for Israel, Western Europe, the United States, South America, and Australia.[19] Many were forced to sign declarations that they were voluntarily emigrating and agreed to the confiscation of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000.[20]
Armenians
The Armenian community in Egypt boasts a rich and storied history, characterized by its distinct language,
Armenians first arrived in Egypt as asylum seekers following the Armenian genocide of 1915 in the Ottoman Empire. At their peak, Armenians in Egypt numbered around 60,000 individuals. However, the year 1961 marked a significant turning point when the Egyptian government nationalized many industries, dealing a decisive blow to Egyptians, including Armenians, who were heavily involved in economic activities. This led to a further decrease in the Armenian population in Egypt as many chose to emigrate in search of better opportunities elsewhere.[22]
In fiction
- Kamal Ruhayyim's novel Days in the Diaspora portrays the life of an exiled family whose mother is an Egyptian Jew.[23]
- André Aciman's memoir Out of Egypt addresses the experience of his family in Alexandria.[24]
- Naguib Mahfouz's novel Miramar takes place in a pension belonging to Mariana, a Greek woman who laments the expulsions' effects on her life and business.[25]
See also
- Armenians in Egypt
- Syro-Lebanese in Egypt
- Greeks in Egypt
- Italian Egyptians
- History of the Jews in Egypt
References
- ^ ISBN 9780415589345.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ ISBN 9781785334481.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ Gorman 2003, p. 174–5.
- ^ Gorman 2003, p. 176 #1: "In the course of the 40 years from the end of the First World War until the early sixties, this considerable mutamassir presence was effectively eliminated, a casualty of the decolonization process and the rise of Egyptian nationalism. The relation between these two phenomena was exacerbated by British policy."
- ^ Gorman 2003, p. 176 #2: "During the Second World War, at the insistence of British authorities, adult male Italian citizens were incarcerated as enemy aliens. In 1948, the foundation of Israel made the position of all Jews in Egypt increasingly tenuous, no matter what their nationality, and the position of Greeks was affected by the vicissitudes of the Greek Civil War in the 1940s. Another critical setback came during the Suez crisis in 1956 when all those who held British and French citizenship were deemed enemy aliens and expelled from the country."
- ^ Laskier 1995, p. 573: "The Jews, like other minorities in Egypt—Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Armenians—did not make up a significant percentage of the total population of 19 million in 1948. Yet, like these minorities, they had made important contributions to the economic modernization of the country, particularly since the latter half of the nineteenth century."
- ^ Laskier 1995, p. 579.
- ^ a b "Egypt: The Other Homeland". Al Jazeera. 4 April 2012. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
- ISBN 9780748686117.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ a b Turiano, Annalaura; Viscomi, Joseph Jon (February 2018). "From immigrants to emigrants: Salesian education and the failed integration of Italians in Egypt, 1937–1960". Modern Italy: Journal of the Association for the Study of Modern Italy. 23 (1): 2.
- ^ Viscomi, J.J. (2019). "Mediterranean Futures: Historical Time and the Departure of Italians from Egypt, 1919–1937". The Journal of Modern History. 92 (2): 344.
- ^ ISBN 978-1784532512.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ISBN 9780520211759.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - – via Routledge.
- ^ ISBN 9781440867477.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - – via Routledge.
- ^ a b Krämer, Gudrun (1982). Minderheit, Millet, Nation? Die Juden in Ägypten 1914-1961 (1st ed.). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 408.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ISBN 978-1-317-62422-6.
- ^ Julius, Lyn. "The Suez Crisis and the Jews of Egypt". Fathom. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ^ Laskier 1995.
- ^ Zohry, Ayman (23 July 2005). "Armenians in Egypt" (PDF). American University in Cairo: 1–9.
- ^ Egyptian Armenians. Retrieved 30 April 2024 – via www.youtube.com.
- ^ Ruhayyim, Kamal. "Book review: Kamal Ruhayyim's "Diary of a Muslim Jew": An engaging take on a complex theme – Qantara.de". Qantara.de – Dialogue with the Islamic World. Quantara.de. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
- ISSN 0143-6597.
Sources and further reading
- Gorman, Anthony (2003). "The Mutamassirun". Historians, State and Politics in Twentieth Century Egypt: Contesting the Nation. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415297530.
- Miccoli, Dario (2015). Histories of the Jews of Egypt An imagined bourgeoisie, 1880s–1950s. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-80205-6.
- Kazamias, Alexander (2009). "The 'Purge of the Greeks' from Nasserite Egypt: Myths and Realities". Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora. 35 (2): 13–34.
- Krämer, Gudrun (1989). The Jews in Modern Egypt, 1914–1952. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9781850431008.
- Laskier, Michael (1995). "Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70". Middle Eastern Studies. 31 (3): 573–619. JSTOR 4283743. Retrieved 17 April 2014.