Abu Sa'id Mirza
Abu Sa'id Mirza ابو سعید میرزا | |
---|---|
House of Timur | |
Father | Muhammad Mirza |
Mother | Shah Islam Agha |
Religion | Sunni Islam |
Abu Sa'id Mirza (
Early life and background
Abu Sa'id Mirza was born in 1424, the second son of the Timurid prince
His father appears to have had little involvement in political matters,[3] though Muhammad Mirza did maintain a close relationship with his influential cousin Ulugh Beg, son of the ruling sultan Shah Rukh and governor of Transoxiana.[4][5] When the former visited Muhammad Mirza on his death-bed, the dying prince took Abu Sa'id's hand and placed it in Ulugh Beg's, putting the boy under his protection.[3]
Initial power struggles
Abu Sa'id was given a role at Ulugh Beg's court, later receiving his daughter in marriage through good service. However, upon Ulugh Beg's ascension to the Timurid throne following the death of Shah Rukh, Abu Sa'id turned against his benefactor.
Abu Sa'id escaped his imprisonment in Samarqand in 1450, fleeing to Bukhara. However, he found little support there and was imprisoned, only being spared execution when news of Abdal-Latif's death reached the city.[9] The Bukhari nobles hastened to release the prince and swore their allegiance to him, upon which he immediately marched against the new ruler, Ulugh Beg's nephew Abdullah Mirza. After an initial failed assault on Samarqand, Abu Sa'id and his small group of followers seized the frontier town of Yasi.[10] When Abdullah marched his forces out in retaliation, Abu Sa'id appealed to the Uzbek ruler Abu'l-Khayr Khan for aid. The latter agreed and their combined forces defeated Abdullah in June 1451. Given that his rival was killed during the battle, the victors were able to enter Samarqand unopposed.[11] Abu Sa'id claimed the Timurid throne and in thanks to the Uzbeks, gave Abu'l-Khayr Khan rich presents as well as Ulugh Beg's daughter in marriage.[12]
Reign
Encounters with Timurid princes
When Abu Sa'id annexed Balkh in 1454, another Timurid, Abul-Qasim Babur of Herat, led his forces against him in response, culminating in a siege on Samarqand. However, the two sides eventually agreed on a truce, establishing the Amu Darya river as a border. This treaty remained in effect until Abul-Qasim Babur's death in 1457, when his young son and successor Mahmud was ousted from Herat by Ibrahim Mirza, a great-nephew of Ulugh Beg. Abu Sa'id, who desired to conquer the city as well as the surrounding region of Khorasan, led his forces against Ibrahim, forcing the latter to flee.[13] However, he was unable to capture the city until 1456.[14] The following year, Abu Sa'id had Shah Rukh's aged widow, the influential dowager-empress Gawhar Shad executed, having accused her of conspiring with Ibrahim, who was her great-grandson.[15]
Noting the conflict among the Timurid princes,
However, other Timurid princes remained who continued to challenge his rule. In 1454, Uways Mirza, a descendant of Timur's eldest son Umar Shaikh, started an uprising with the aid of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, Abu Sa'id's erstwhile ally, during which the latter suffered a serious defeat. Abu Sa'id faced similar threats from another descendant of Umar Shaikh, Sultan Husayn Bayqara. The latter had previously captured Gorgan from a Qara Qoyunlu chief when Jahan Shah had withdrawn from the region. Although he initially swore fealty to Abu Sa'id, when his overlord was distracted by a rebellion in 1460, Husayn Bayqara occupied Mazandaran and then laid siege to Herat the following year. Although he was later expelled from these lands, Husayn Bayqara nevertheless continued to make raids into Abu Sa'id's territories with impunity. In 1461, Muhammad Juki, son of Abdal-Latif, also rose in rebellion. He pillaged his way through Transoxiana before occupying the city of Shahrukhiyya, where Abu Sa'id was forced to launch an extended siege which lasted from November 1462 to September 1463.[19]
War with the Aq Qoyunlu
Towards the end of 1467, Abu Sa'id received word of the death of Jahan Shah at the hands of
It seems that this campaign was an impulsive undertaking, with little initial planning being involved. This became clear when Abu Sa'id began to advance without waiting for all his troops to arrive, thus failing to ensure that he had adequate reserves. Though he did manage to dislodge the Aq Qoyunlu governors of
However, Abu Sa'id's situation during this time was relatively favourable. Following Jahan Shah's death, there were a fair number of his former
In spite of this strength, the Timurid army soon found itself in a dangerous situation before any true fighting was engaged. Already suffering from difficulties posed by the Azerbaijani winter, the troops began to face serious supply issues. This was due to the supply routes back to Khorasan, stretching over 1200 miles, being vulnerable to disruption. A supply column was intercepted by Uzun Hasan, who also blocked off access to ships carrying provisions from Shirvan. In addition to this, he quickly succeeded in blocking all routes through which reinforcements could be brought, and mounted attacks from Ray against Timurid communications. The lack of food, winter clothing, riding and transport animals as well as continual surprise raids by the Aq Qoyunlu undermined the morale of Abu Sa'id's troops. This worsened when Uzun Hasan convinced Farrukh Yassar to defect from the Timurids, resulting in a large number of desertions.[21]
Death and aftermath
The demoralised and depleted army marched via
Abu Sa'id's death resulted in the final loss of all Timurid lands west of Khorasan.
Administration
Abu Sa'id was able to bring stability to the internal situation of his empire, in a region that had previously been subject to the conflicts of multiple bellicose factions.
He is generally seen as a typical representative of the Turkmen military aristocracy. His main prop to power was the Arghuns, a Turk tribe which had early on elected him as their chief and upon whom he counted for support in his political and military ventures.[22] In return, the tribe was greatly favoured, with it being notable that Abu Sa'id's chief wife was the daughter of an Arghun lord.[29][30] He consolidated his power through the granting of fiefs, which he provided generously to leading members of the tribe, his sons, as well as secular and religious dignitaries.[22]
Abu Sa'id's rule was also buoyed by the support of the religious classes.[17] His policies were subsequently greatly influenced by Islamic dervishes, who tended to oppose the cultural expressions which marked the reign of his predecessor Ulugh Beg. The most prominent among these dervishes was the Sufi Naqshbandi shaikh, Ubaydullah al-Ahrar, with whom the sultan shared a close relationship.[12][31] Under Ahrar's encouragement, Abu Sa'id re-instituted Sharia law in Samarqand and Bukhara, and removed taxes on commerce which could not be reconciled with religious doctrine.[note 1] It was also partially through the shaikh's persuasion that Abu Sa'id launched his final, fatal campaign against the Aq Qoyunlu.[22] However, another powerful dervish, Burhan al-Din, titled "Shaikh al-Islam", also held great power in the royal court. Unlike Ahrar, Burhan al-Din sought to the preserve the traditions of Ulugh Beg. Abu Sa'id made use of the authority of either shaikh depending on the circumstance. Ahrar's influence held sway among the common people as well as the army, while Burhan al-Din's cultural interests more closely aligned with that of the government, which proved useful when faced with popular uprisings.[33]
It is perhaps in response to these types of uprisings that Abu Sa'id developed a special interest in agriculture and the welfare of peasants. Among other policies, he began tax provisions which favoured agriculture and made improvements to existing irrigation systems. In regard to the latter, his vizier Qutb al-Din Simnani was particularly active in the construction of the Juy-i Sultani Canal to the north of Herat.[34]
Abu Sa'id himself does not seem to have personally engaged in large-scale building projects, perhaps because of the time he spent on campaigns.[35] However, there are some works which have been credited to him. This includes the Aq Saray (white palace) in Herat, which shifted the royal living space to outside the city walls, "marking a conscious break with the past."[36] Other public works attributed to him include repairs to the Gulistān dam "while at the same time appropriating the lands it watered".[37] Buildings include an aiwan at the musalla in Herat,[38] repairs to Ghār-i Karukh which includes an inscription,[39][40] and construction of a spa and bath at Ūba (Obeh), a "resort for the Timurids" in their summer quarters.[41]
Legacy
Views on Abu Sa'id tend to be favourable based on his success in maintaining a large, cohesive dominion for nearly two decades, in spite of being involved in a near continual state of warfare.
However, in spite of his achievements, Abu Sa'id failed in his endeavour to restore the Timurid Empire to its extent at the time of Timur, or even that of Shah Rukh.[26] He was unable to achieve a lasting peace in his domains and within forty years of his death, nearly all his territories were lost to external invasions. However, these losses eventually pushed his grandson Babur to begin his conquests in the Indian subcontinent, leading to the foundation of the Mughal Empire.[22][43][44]
Marriages
Abu Sa'd had thirty nine wives:
- Khanzada Begum, daughter of Abu'l Khayr Khan
- Rabia Sultan Begum, daughter of his paternal uncle Muhammad Timur Mirza and Khand Sultan Begi
- Aqa Begum (Taghay Shah), daughter of Ulugh Beg
- Qutlugh Sultan Khanum
- Malik Sultan Begum, daughter of Ordu Bugha Tarkhan Arghun
- Shah Sultan Begum Mughal
- Shahzada Begum, daughter of Badakshan
- Khanzada Begum, daughter of Khanzada Taj-al-Din Tirmizi
- Saliha Sultan Agha, daughter of Chake Barlas
- Jamal Begi Agha Barlas
- Dawlat Bakht Agha, daughter of Qazan Shaikh Mughal
- Kanizak Begi Agha, daughter of Shaikh Yusuf Ilke
- Umid Agha, daughter of Sultan Ahmad, son of Ghiyas Beg
- Qutlugh Begi Agha, daughter of Muhammad son of Khudaidad, former wife of Ibrahim Mirza
- Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, daughter of Ala al-Dawla Mirza
- Khurshid Begi Aghacha, daughter of Murad Akhtaji
- Dilshad Aghacha, daughter of Amir Buzurg, son of Amir Bayan
- Bay Malik Aghacha, daughter of Jan Darvish
- Aafaq Aghacha Kukaltash, foster sister of Ibrahim Mirza
- Shahum Aghacha, daughter of Amir Yahya Qushji
- Hanifa Sultan Aghacha, daughter of Amir Ajab Mughal
- Dawlat Sultan Aghacha, daughter of Rustam Tuta
- Bulghan Aghacha
- Makhdum Aghacha, relative of Sultan Muhammad, son of Ghiyas Beg
- Sa'adat Bakht Aghacha, daughter of Ali Araka, Pirzada of Baghdad
- Afaq Aghacha
- Gohar Sultan Aghacha, daughter of Khwaja Rasti
- Gulshah Aghacha
- Shah Sultan Aghacha
- Subur Sultan Aghacha, daughter of Abd al-Shaikh
- Khadija Begi Khurd, daughter of Mawlana Nasr-al-Din;
- Nusrat Sultan Aghacha, daughter of Shah Saqd Wali Suldoz;
- Bibi Sultan Aghacha, daughter of FarrukhShah Qauchin;
- Gulrukh Sultan Aghacha, daughter of Yusuf, son of Hamza;
- Zainab Begi Agha, daughter of Sultan Ahmad Suldoz;
- Khadija Begum, daughter of Amir Muhammad Sarik bin Amir Muhammad Khawaja;
- Habiba Sultan Begum, daughter of Amir Jalal-ud-din Suhrab;
Issue
Abu Sa'id had sixty known children:
By Khanzada Begum (daughter of Abu'l Khayr Khan):
- Sultan Muhammad
By Aqa Begum (Taghay Shah):
- Sultan Badi al-Mulk
- Gawhar Shad Begum (d. after 1531)[note 2]
- Khanzada Begum
By Malik Sultan Begum:[47][note 3]
- Sultan Ahmad (1451 – 1494)
- Sultan Mahmud (1453 – 1495)
- Khadija Sultan Begi (d. after 1531)[note 2]
By Shah Sultan Begum Mughal:[49][note 4]
- Umar Shaikh Mirza II (1456 – 1494)
By Shahzada Begum:
- Abu Bakr (d. 1479)
By Khanzada Begum (daughter of Khanzada Taj-al-Din Tirmizi):
- Shah Muhammad
By Saliha Sultan Agha:
- Zubayda Sultan Begi
By Dawlat Bakht Agha:
- Muhammad Jahangir
- Sultan Jahangir
- Sultan Khalil
- Sa’adat Sultan Begi
- Sahib Sultan Begi
- Bibi Begum
By Kanizak Begi Agha:
- Sultan Ibrahim
- Sultan Bakht Begi (d. after 1531)[note 2]
- Jahan Sultan Begi
By Umid Agha:
- Aman Sultan Begi
By Qutlugh Begi Agha:
- Umar (d. after 1478)
By Ruqaiya Sultan Begum:
- Shah Rukh (1459 – 1493/4)
- Baysunghur (b. 1456)
- Urun Sultan Khanum; married Badi' al-Zaman Mirza[50]
By Khurshid Begi Aghacha:
- Qutlugh Tarkan Agha
By Dilshad Aghacha:
- Sultan Sanjar
- Payanda Sultan Begum; married Sultan Husayn Bayqara
- Rabia Sultan Begi; married Muhammad Qasim, a descendant of Miran Shah
- Aisha Sultan Begi
By Bay Malik Aghacha:
- Abdullah
- Sultan Murad (d. after 1475)
- Shahrbanu Begi; married Sultan Husayn Bayqara
- Mihr Nush Begi
- Mihr Banu Begi
By Afaq Aghacha Kukaltash:
- Sultan Begi
- Badr Jamal Begi (d. after 1531)[note 2]
By Shahum Aghacha:
- Tuman Agha
- Shirin Beg Agha
By Hanifa Sultan Aghacha:
- Sultan Muhammad (d. c. 1494)
By Dawlat Sultan Aghacha:
- Iskandar
By Bulghan Aghacha:
- Shah Mansur
- Maryam Sultan Begi
By Makhdum Aghacha:
- Qutlugh Sultan Begi
By Sa'adat Bakht Aghacha:
- Khvand Sultan Begi
By Gohar Sultan Aghacha:
- Miran Shah
- Fakhr Jahan Begi (d. after 1531);[note 2] married Mir Ala-al-Mulk of Termez[51]
- Bibi Khan Begi
By Gulshah Aghacha:
- Rustam
- Dawlat Sultan Begi
By Shah Sultan Aghacha:
- Zainab Begi
By Subur Sultan Aghacha:
- Sultan Usman
By Nusrat Sultan Aghacha:
- Sultan Walad (d. after 1469)
By Bibi Sultan Aghacha:
- Muzaffar
By Gulrukh Sultan Aghacha:
- Aisha Sultan Begi
By Zainab Begi Agha:
- Qutlugh Sultan Begi
By unnamed mothers:
- Ulugh Beg II (d. 1501/2)
- Khvand Sultan Begi
- Khadija Sultan Begi
- Aq Begum[52] (d. after 1531)[note 2]
Notes
- ^ The removal of this tax may have been as much a reversal of an act by an earlier, little-liked ruler as a shift in policy toward Islamic taxation systems.[32]
- ^ a b c d e f These women were recorded to have travelled to Agra in 1531 to attend the "Mystic Feast", a celebration hosted by their great-nephew Humayun to commemorate the fourth anniversary of his ascension to the Mughal throne.[46]
- ^ John E. Woods has more recently identified the mother of Sultan Ahmad and Sultan Mahmud as being Aqa Begum (Taghay Shah), daughter of Ulugh Beg.[48]
- ^ The background of Umar Shaikh's mother is uncertain, though Annette Beveridge had suggested that she may be identical to the mother of Sultan Ahmad and Sultan Mahmud.[49]
References
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- ^ ISBN 978-81-7156-032-5.
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- ISBN 978-0-8147-7446-5.
- ^ a b Shyam, Radhey (1978). Babar. Janaki Prakashan. p. 14.
- ISBN 978-1-139-46284-6.
- ^ Barthold, Vasilii Vladimirovitch (1963). Four Studies on the History of Central Asia. Vol. 2. Brill Archive. p. 161.
- ^ Barthold (1963, p. 161)
- ^ Barthold (1963, p. 164)
- ^ Barthold (1963, p. 165)
- ^ a b Barthold (1963, p. 168)
- ISBN 978-0-521-20094-3.
- ^ Ṣiddīqī, Muḥammad Shamsuddīn (1988). The Ruling Dynasties of Central Asia. Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar. p. 206.
- ^ a b c Barthold (1963, p. 173)
- ^ a b Jackson & Lockhart (1986, p. 114)
- ^ ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1.
- ^ Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen (1967). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. I. Brill. p. 852.
- ^ Jackson & Lockhart (1986, p. 115)
- ^ Jackson & Lockhart (1986, pp. 115–16)
- ^ a b c Jackson & Lockhart (1986, p. 116)
- ^ a b c d e f g Jackson & Lockhart (1986, p. 117)
- ISBN 9781605201504.
- S2CID 162248528.
- ^ Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Wolseley; Burn, Richard (1971). The Cambridge History of India. Vol. IV The Mughul Period. University Press. p. 3.
- ^ a b c Jackson & Lockhart (1986, p. 112)
- Khwandamir (1994). Habibu's-siyar, tome three: the reign of the Mongol and the Turk. Translated by Wheeler McIntosh Thackston. Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Harvard University. pp. 203–04.
- ISBN 978-0-252-07121-8.
- ^ Gibb (1967, p. 148)
- ISBN 978-90-04-09787-2.
- ^ Manz (2007, p. 193)
- ^ Manz (2007, p. 267)
- ^ Barthold (1963, p. 171)
- ^ Jackson & Lockhart (1986, pp. 117–18)
- ISBN 9783882261752.
- ^ Allen (1983, pp. 49, 52–53)
- ^ O'Kane, Bernard (1987). Timurid Architecture in Khurasan. Islamic Art and Architecture. Costa Mesa, CA. p. 15.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ O'Kane (1987, p. 20)
- ^ O'Kane (1987, pp. 251–52)
- ISBN 978-0-691-03587-1.
- ^ Allen (1983, p. 24)
- ^ Browne, Edward Granville (1920). A Literary History of Persia: A history of Persian literature under Tartar dominion (AD 1265-1502). T. Fisher Unwin. p. 388.
- ISBN 978-0-85773-246-0.
- ISBN 9780673388674.
- ^ Woods (1990, pp. 35–36)
- JSTOR 20721773.
- ^ Babur (1922). The Babur-nama In English (Memoirs of Babur). Vol. I. Translated by Annette Beveridge. Luzac & Co. p. 33.
- ^ Woods (1990, p. 36)
- ^ a b Babur (1922, p. 13)
- ^ Woods (1990, p. 26)
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- ^ Woods (1990, pp. 36–40)