Banksia coccinea
Scarlet banksia | |
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Flower spike of B. coccinea Little Grove, Albany | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Order: | Proteales |
Family: | Proteaceae |
Genus: | Banksia |
Species: | B. coccinea
|
Binomial name | |
Banksia coccinea | |
Synonyms[1] | |
Banksia coccinea, commonly known as the scarlet banksia, waratah banksia or Albany banksia, and large populations of plants have succumbed to the disease.
Collected and described by
Description
The scarlet banksia grows as an erect shrub or small tree, generally around 2–4 m (6.6–13.1 ft) tall, with little lateral spread.[3] However, it can reach 8 metres (26 ft) in height, particularly in the vicinity of Albany. The trunk is generally single at the base before branching, and covered with smooth grey bark that is 2–5 mm (0.079–0.197 in) thick and lacking in lenticels.[4] Peaking in the summer months,[3] the pinkish-brown new growth is densely hairy. The oblong, cordate or obcordate leaves are 3–9 cm (1.2–3.5 in) long and 2–7 cm (0.8–2.8 in) wide, with 3–5 mm (0.12–0.20 in) long petioles. Truncate at the apex, they have dentate margins with small (1–3 mm long) teeth 3–18 mm (0.12–0.71 in) apart, separated by shallow u- or v-shaped sinuses. The upper surface is covered in fine fur when young and becomes smooth with age, while the undersurface is covered with white fur, particularly along the midrib.[4]
The process of flowering takes 9–12 months; the stems begin developing microscopically in spring, with no visible evidence of flower spike development for around five months before the buds actually appear.[5] Flower spikes are in bloom from May to December or January, peaking between July and October.[3] The distinctive inflorescences arise from the ends of one-year-old branchlets.[4] Squat and roughly cylindrical, they are 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) high and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide.[6] A field study on the southern sandplains revealed an average count of around 286 individual flowers on each spike.[7] The white flower is covered in grey or pale brown fur, and there is little variation in colour. The style is generally scarlet, but can be dark red, orange or pink.[5] The perianth is 3–3.2 cm (1.2–1.3 in) long, while the style is 4–4.8 cm (1.6–1.9 in) long and strongly recurved or looped until they are released at anthesis.[4] Anthesis is acropetal, that is, the flowers open from the base up the spike to the apex.[5] The flowers of all banksias arise in a spiral pattern around the flower spike axis; however in Banksia coccinea they develop into distinctive vertical columns, which are strongly accentuated by large gaps in between.[4] Paired in columns, the red styles contrast with the grey-white perianth making a striking flower spike.[8]
The infructescence is small, with up to 20 small follicles concentrated at the lower end of the spike.[6] Each follicle is 6–8 mm (0.24–0.31 in) long, 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) high, and 2–3 mm (c. 0.1 in) wide and usually opens with fire. The 1.1–1.4 cm (0.43–0.55 in) long seed is composed of the cuneate (wedge-shaped) seed body proper, measuring 0.5–0.7 cm (0.2–0.3 in) long and 0.4–0.7 cm (0.2–0.3 in) wide, and a papery wing. One side, termed the outer surface, is grey-black and wrinkled and the other—the inner surface—protrudes and is black and glistening. The seeds are separated by a dark brown seed separator that is roughly the same shape as the seeds with a depression where the seed body sits adjacent to it in the follicle. It measures 1.1–1.4 cm (0.4–0.6 in) long and 0.7–0.8 cm (0.3–0.3 in) wide. The dull green cotyledons of seedlings are 0.8–0.9 cm (0.3–0.4 in) long and 0.5–0.6 cm (0.2–0.2 in) wide, described by Alex George as "cuneate to obovate". Each cotyledon has a 1 mm (0.04 in) auricle at its base. The thick, smooth hypocotyl is 1 cm (0.5 in) high and 1.5 mm thick. The seedling leaves are crowded above the cotyledons and linear to spathulate in shape, with recurved and deeply serrated margins with v-shaped sinuses, almost dividing the leaves into triangular lobes. The first pair are 0.8–1.2 cm (0.3–0.5 in) long, with the next 2–4 leaves up to 1.7 cm (0.7 in) long. Successive leaves are more obovate in shape and up to 4 cm (2 in) long and 1.4 cm (0.6 in) wide. The seedling stems are covered in white hair.[4]
Taxonomy
Discovery and naming
The first known specimens of Banksia coccinea were collected in December 1801, during the visit to
Good also made a separate seed collection, which included B. coccinea,
Brown published the species in his 1810 On the Proteaceae of Jussieu, its species name derived from the
In 1891,
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subgenus Banksia, and was divided into three sections. George placed Banksia coccinea in its own series—Banksia series Coccineae—within the section B. section Banksia on account of a unique combination of characters, namely the vertical arrangement of flowers on the spike, combined with the branched open habit, broad leaves and very small follicles. Members of the series Quercinae and five species within the series Spicigerae share the vertically aligned flowers, but do not wholly exhibit the other characters.[4]
Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus in 1996; their morphological cladistic analysis yielded a cladogram significantly different from George's arrangement. They were uncertain of B. coccinea's placement as it had highly autapomorphic characteristics which made analysis of its relationships difficult. Hence, in their arrangement it was located within series Banksia but not allocated to a subseries (incertae sedis).[28] It was reclassified in its own section Coccinea in 1996 by Tina Maguire and colleagues; pollen compatibility tests indicated its pollen was most compatible with Banksia ericifolia, B. micrantha and B. sphaerocarpa, all of section Oncostylis. However, they did not place it in that section as all members of Oncostylis have hooked styles at anthesis.[29] This was upheld by George in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series.[30] B. coccinea's placement within Banksia according to Flora of Australia is as follows:
In 2002, a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed Banksia coccinea to be the next closest relative of a group comprising Banksia speciosa and B. baxteri and only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia.[31] This was reinforced in a 2013 molecular study by Marcel Cardillo and colleagues using chloroplast DNA and combining it with earlier results.[32]
Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of
No subspecies are recognised, although DNA analysis showed that a population at Redmond was genetically distinctive, while those at Gull Rock, Two Peoples Bay and Cheyne Beach were unusually diverse.[35]
Noongar peoples know the tree as Waddib.[36]
Distribution and habitat
B. coccinea occurs close to the south coast of Western Australia, from the Hay River northeast of
Ecology
A field study conducted around
B. coccinea is killed by fire and regenerates afterwards from seed released from burnt follicles.[4] It has is some degree of serotiny, that is, it has an aerial seed bank in its canopy in the form of the follicles of the old flower spikes. However, numbers of seed are less than other co-occurring species of banksia on the southern plains and peak several years after a fire. Unusually for banksias, B. coccinea can release seed with resulting seedlings growing in the absence of a bushfire trigger. Plants flower and fruit three years after germination and are shorter-lived than other banksias, appearing in poor health or dying before 20 years of age. They hence appear to be suited to fire intervals of less than 20 years.[7]
Manipulating growing conditions on plants in cultivation showed that longer daylight (16 hours vs 8 hours) led to development of more flower spikes, indicating that flower initiation was related to day length.[40]
Extremely sensitive to dieback caused by
Dying stands of B. coccinea were observed in 1989, and the fungus
B. coccinea is a host for the gall midge
Cultivation
Widely considered one of the most attractive Banksia species, B. coccinea is a popular garden plant and one of the most important Banksia species for the cut flower industry; it is grown commercially in Australia, South Africa, Canada, the United States, New Zealand, Israel, and trialled in France, Spain and South America.[6] Its striking terminal inflorescences and furry new growth are its main horticultural attributes. However, it is highly sensitive to dieback and succumbs readily when exposed. It is difficult to keep alive in areas of heavy soils or summer rainfall or humidity, such as the Australian east coast. Furthermore, flowering may be sparse or not occur when cultivated in warmer climates such as Perth.[6] Pruning promotes branching, which leads to more flower spikes being produced.[2]
Propagation is by seed, though these can be difficult to extract from the follicles.
In a breeding program conducted by Margaret Sedgley of the Department of Horticulture, Viticulture and Oenology, Waite Agricultural Research Institute of the University of Adelaide in Adelaide, South Australia, two forms of Banksia coccinea were bred, registered under plant breeders' rights (PBR), and commercially propagated, mainly for the cut flower industry. Banksia 'Waite Flame' is an early flowering somewhat orange-hued form, and B. 'Waite Crimson' is a red-flowering form that peaks mid-season.[8]
References
- ^ a b "Banksia coccinea". Australian Plant Census. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-207-17277-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-644-07124-6.
- ^ S2CID 196677407.
- ^ .
- ^ ISBN 978-1-876473-68-6.
- ^ .
- ^ ISBN 978-0-9803013-1-1.
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- ISBN 978-0-7316-8463-2.
- ^ "Banksia coccinea R.Br". Robert Brown's Australian Botanical Specimens, 1801–1805 at the BM. FloraBase, Western Australian Herbarium. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
- ISBN 978-1-920843-20-5.
- ISBN 978-0-642-56817-5.
- ISSN 0068-2306.
- ^ Aiton, William (1810). "Banksia". Hortus Kewensis (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. p. 216. Retrieved 1 March 2010.
- ^ Pignatti-Wikus, Erika; Reidl-Dorn, Christa; Mabberley, David (2000). "Ferdinand Bauer's Field Drawings of Endemic Western Australian Plants made at King George Sound and Lucky Bay, December 1801 – January 1802. I: Families Brassicaceae, Goodenaceae p.p., Lentibulariaceae, Campanulaceae p.p., Orchidaceae, Pittosporaceae p.p., Rutaceae p.p., Stylidaceae, Xyridaceae". Rendiconti Lincei: Scienze Fisiche e Naturali. s.9, v.11 (2): 69–109.
- ^ "Banksia coccinea, Scarlet Banksia [image details]". Natural History Museum. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2010.
- ^ Bauer, Ferdinand (1813). Illustrationes Florae Novae Hollandiae. London, United Kingdom: self-published.
- ISBN 978-0-643-06366-2.
- ^ "Banksia purpurea Schnizl". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.
- ^ "Banksia coccinea". APNI. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ Brown, Robert (1810). Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen (in Latin). London, United Kingdom: Richard Taylor and Company. p. 394.
- ^ Meissner, Carl (1856). "Proteaceae: Quercinae: B. coccinea". In de Candolle, A.P. (ed.). Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, Pars Decima Quarta (in Latin). Vol. 14. Paris, France: Sumptibus Victoris Masson. p. 459. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
- ^ Bentham, George (1870). . Flora Australiensis: Volume 5: Myoporineae to Proteaceae. London, United Kingdom: L. Reeve & Co. pp. 541–62.
- ^ Kuntze, Otto (1891). Revisio generum plantarum. Vol. 2. Leipzig: Arthur Felix. pp. 581–582.
- JSTOR 4107078.
- JSTOR 4111642.
- .
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- ISBN 978-0-643-06454-6.
- PMID 21665734.
- PMID 23957450.
- doi:10.1071/SB04015.
- doi:10.1071/SB06016.
- doi:10.1071/BT96102.
- ^ "Noongar names for plants". kippleonline.net. Archived from the original on 20 November 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-86417-818-3.
- JSTOR 2398921. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
- ^ "Specimen Report". Museum Victoria website: Bioinformatics. Melbourne, Victoria: Museum Victoria. 2010. Archived from the original on 24 August 2006. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
- .
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- ^ "Common Indicator Species for the Presence of Disease caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi" (PDF). Government of Western Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ISSN 1039-6500.
- S2CID 2746387.
- S2CID 35522990.
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External links
- "Banksia coccinea R.Br". Flora of Australia Online. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government.
- "Banksia sect. Coccinea (A.S.George) T.L.Maguire, Sedgley & Conran". Flora of Australia Online. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government.
- "Banksia coccinea R.Br". Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions.
- "Banksia sect. Coccinea (A.S.George) T.L.Maguire, Sedgley & Conran". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.