Georg Forster
Georg Forster FRS | |
---|---|
J. H. W. Tischbein, 1781 | |
Born | Johann George Adam Forster 27 November 1754 |
Died | 10 January 1794 | (aged 39)
Education | Saint Peter's School (Saint Petersburg), Warrington Academy |
Known for | Founding modern travel literature |
Spouse | Therese Heyne |
Children | Therese Forster |
Parent(s) | Johann Reinhold Forster and Justina Elisabeth, née Nicolai |
Awards | Fellow of the Royal Society, 1777 |
Scientific career | |
Fields | natural history, ethnology |
Institutions | Vilnius University, University of Mainz, Collegium Carolinum (Kassel) |
Patrons | Catherine the Great |
Author abbrev. (botany) | G.Forst. |
Signature | |
Johann George Adam Forster, also known as Georg Forster[nb 1] (German pronunciation: [ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈfɔʁstɐ], 27 November 1754 – 10 January 1794), was a German geographer, naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist and revolutionary. At an early age, he accompanied his father, Johann Reinhold Forster, on several scientific expeditions, including James Cook's second voyage to the Pacific. His report of that journey, A Voyage Round the World, contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people of Polynesia and remains a respected work. As a result of the report, Forster, who was admitted to the Royal Society at the early age of twenty-two, came to be considered one of the founders of modern scientific travel literature.
After returning to continental Europe, Forster turned toward academia. He taught natural history at the Collegium Carolinum in the Ottoneum, Kassel (1778–84), and later at the Academy of Vilna (Vilnius University) (1784–87). In 1788, he became head librarian at the University of Mainz. Most of his scientific work during this time consisted of essays on botany and ethnology, but he also prefaced and translated many books about travel and exploration, including a German translation of Cook's diaries.
Forster was a central figure of the Enlightenment in Germany, and corresponded with most of its adherents, including his close friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg. His ideas, travelogues and personality influenced Alexander von Humboldt, one of the great scientists of the 19th century[5] who hailed Forster as the founder of both comparative ethnology (Völkerkunde) and regional geography (Länderkunde).[6] When the French took control of
Early life
Georg Forster was born in
Around the world with Captain Cook
The Forsters moved back to London in 1770,
They embarked
Supervised by his father, Georg Forster first undertook studies of the
Unlike
The journey was rich in scientific results. However, the relationship between the Forsters and Cook and his officers was often problematic, due to the elder Forster's fractious temperament[40] as well as Cook's refusal to allow more time for botanical and other scientific observation. Cook refused scientists on his third journey after his experiences with the Forsters.[41]
Founder of modern travel literature
These conflicts continued after the journey with the problem of who should write the official account of the travels. Lord Sandwich, although willing to pay the promised money, was irritated with Johann Reinhold Forster's opening chapter and tried to have it edited. However, Forster did not want to have his writing corrected "like a theme of a School-boy", and stubbornly refused any compromise.[34] As a result, the official account was written by Cook, and the Forsters were deprived of the right to compile the account and did not obtain payment for their work. During the negotiations, the younger Forster decided to release an unofficial account of their travels. In 1777, his book A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5 was published. This report was the first account of Cook's second voyage (it appeared six weeks before the official publication) and was intended for the general public. The English version and his own translation into German (published 1778–80) earned the young author real fame. The poet Christoph Martin Wieland praised the book as the most important one of his time, and even today it remains one of the most important journey descriptions ever written. The book also had a significant impact on German literature, culture and science, influencing such scientists as Alexander von Humboldt[42] and it inspired many ethnologists of later times.
Forster wrote well-polished German prose, which was not only scientifically accurate and objective, but also exciting and easy to read. This differed from conventional travel literature of the time, insofar as it presented more than a mere collection of data – it also demonstrated coherent, colourful and reliable ethnographical facts that resulted from detailed and sympathetic observation. He often interrupted the description to enrich it with philosophical remarks about his observations.[43] His main focus was always on the people he encountered: their behavior, customs, habits, religions and forms of social organization. In A Voyage Round the World he even presented the songs sung by the people of Polynesia, complete with lyrics and notation. The book is one of the most important sources concerning the societies of the Southern Pacific from the times before European influence had become significant.[44]
Both Forsters also published descriptions of their South Pacific travels in the Berlin-based Magazin von merkwürdigen neuen Reisebeschreibungen ("Magazine of strange new travel accounts"), and Georg published a translation of "A Voyage to the South Sea, by Lieutenant William Bligh, London 1792" in 1791–93.
Forster at universities
The publication of A Voyage Round the World brought Forster scientific recognition all over Europe.[45] The respectable Royal Society made him a member on 9 January 1777,[46] though he was not even 23 years old. He was granted similar titles from academies ranging from Berlin to Madrid.[47] These appointments, however, were unpaid.
He travelled to Paris to seek out a discussion with the American revolutionary
However, by 1783 Forster saw that his involvement with the Rosicrucians not only led him away from real science, but also deeper into debt
Forster regularly published essays on contemporary explorations and continued to be a very prolific translator; for instance, he wrote about Cook's third journey to the South Pacific, and about the Bounty expedition, as well as translating Cook's and Bligh's diaries from these journeys into German.[59] From his London years, Forster was in contact with Sir Joseph Banks, the initiator of the Bounty expedition and a participant in Cook's first journey. While at the University of Vilnius he wrote the article "Neuholland und die brittische Colonie in Botany-Bay", published in the Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch (Berlin, December 1786), an essay on the future prospects of the English colony founded in New South Wales in 1788.[60]
Another interest of his was indology – one of the main goals of his failed expedition to be financed by Catherine II had been to reach India. He translated the Sanskrit play Shakuntala using a Latin version provided by Sir William Jones; this strongly influenced Johann Gottfried Herder, and triggered German interest in the culture of India.[61]
Views from the Lower Rhine
In the second quarter of 1790, Forster and the young Alexander von Humboldt started from Mainz on a long journey through the Southern Netherlands, the United Provinces, and England, eventually finishing in Paris. The impressions from the journey were described in a three volume publication Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich im April, Mai und Juni 1790 (Views of the Lower Rhine, from Brabant, Flanders, Holland, England, and France in April, May and June 1790), published 1791–94. Goethe said about the book: "One wants, after one has finished reading, to start it over, and wishes to travel with such a good and knowledgeable observer." The book includes comments on the history of art that were as influential for the discipline as A Voyage Round the world was for ethnology. Forster was, for example, one of the first writers who gave just treatment to the Gothic architecture of Cologne Cathedral,[62] which was widely perceived as "barbarian" at that time. The book conformed well to the early Romantic intellectual movements in German-speaking Europe.[63]
Forster's main interest, however, was again focused on the social behavior of people, as 15 years earlier in the Pacific. The national uprisings in Flanders and Brabant and the revolution in France sparked his curiosity. The journey through these regions, together with the Netherlands and England, where citizens' freedoms were equally well developed, in the end helped him to resolve his own political opinions. From that time on he was to be a confident opponent of the ancien régime. With other German scholars, he welcomed the outbreak of the revolution as a clear consequence of the Enlightenment. As early as 30 July 1789, shortly after he heard about the Storming of the Bastille, he wrote to his father-in-law, philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne, that it was beautiful to see what philosophy had nurtured in people's minds and then had realized in the state. To educate people about their rights in this way, he wrote, was after all the surest way; the rest would then result as if by itself.[64]
Life as a revolutionary
Foundation of the Mainz Republic
The French revolutionary army under
Die Pressefreiheit herrscht endlich innerhalb dieser Mauern, wo die Buchdruckerpresse erfunden ward.[66]
The freedom of the press finally reigns within these walls where the printing press was invented.
This freedom did not last long, though. The Mainz Republic existed only until the retreat of the French troops in July 1793 after the siege of Mainz.
Forster was not present in Mainz during the siege. As representatives of the Mainz National Convention, he and Adam Lux had been sent to Paris to apply for Mainz – which was unable to exist as an independent state – to become a part of the French Republic. The application was accepted, but had no effect, since Mainz was conquered by Prussian and Austrian troops, and the old order was restored.[67] Forster lost his library and collections and decided to remain in Paris.[68]
Death in revolutionary Paris
Based on a decree by Emperor Francis II inflicting punishments on German subjects who collaborated with the French revolutionary government, Forster was declared an outlaw and placed under the Imperial ban; a prize of 100 ducats was set on his head and he could not return to Germany.[69] Devoid of all means of making a living and without his wife, who had stayed in Mainz with their children and her later husband Ludwig Ferdinand Huber, he remained in Paris. At this point the revolution in Paris had entered the Reign of Terror introduced by the Committee of Public Safety under the rule of Maximilien Robespierre. Forster had the opportunity to experience the difference between the promises of the revolution of happiness for all and its cruel practice. In contrast to many other German supporters of the revolution, like for instance Friedrich Schiller, Forster did not turn back from his revolutionary ideals under the pressure of the terror. He viewed the events in France as a force of nature that could not be slowed and that had to release its own energies to avoid being even more destructive.[70]
Before the reign of terror reached its climax, Forster died after a rheumatic illness[71] in his small attic apartment at Rue des Moulins[72] in Paris on 10 January 1794,[69] at the age of thirty-nine. At the time, he was making plans to visit India.[68]
Views on nations and their culture
Forster had partial Scottish roots and was born in Polish Royal Prussia, and therefore was by birth a Polish subject. He worked in Russia, England, Poland and in several German countries of his time. Finally, he finished his life in France. He worked in different milieus and traveled a lot from his youth on. It was his view that this, together with his scientific upbringing based on the principles of the Enlightenment, gave him a wide perspective on different ethnic and national communities:
All peoples of the earth have equal claims to my good will ... and my praise and blame are independent of national prejudice.[76]
In his opinion all human beings have the same abilities with regard to reason, feelings and imagination, but these basic ingredients are used in different ways and in different environments, which gives rise to different cultures and civilizations. According to him it is obvious that the culture on Tierra del Fuego is at a lower level of development than European culture, but he also admits that the conditions of life there are much more difficult and this gives people very little chance to develop a higher culture. Based on these opinions he was classified as one of the main examples of 18th-century German cosmopolitanism.[77]
In contrast to the attitude expressed in these writings and to his Enlightenment background, he used insulting terms expressing prejudice against Poles in his private letters during his stay in Vilnius and in a diary from the journey through Poland,[78][79][80] but he never published any manifestation of this attitude.[81] These insults only became known after his death, when his private correspondence and diaries were released to the public. Since Forster's published descriptions of other nations were seen as impartial scientific observations, Forster's disparaging description of Poland in his letters and diaries was often taken at face value in Imperial and Nazi Germany, where it was used as a means of science-based support for a purported German superiority.[82] The spreading of the "Polnische Wirtschaft" (Polish economy) stereotype[83][84] is most likely due to the influence of his letters.[85][84]
Forster's attitude brought him into conflict with the people of the different nations he encountered and made him welcome nowhere, as he was too revolutionary and antinational for Germans,[86] proud and opposing in his dealings with Englishmen,[87] too unconcerned about Polish science for Poles,[84][88] and too insignificant politically and ignored while in France.[86]
Legacy
After Forster's death, his works were mostly forgotten, except in professional circles. This was partly due to his involvement in the French revolution. However, his reception changed with the politics of the times, with different periods focusing on different parts of his work. In the period of rising nationalism after the Napoleonic era he was regarded in Germany as a "traitor to his country", overshadowing his work as an author and scientist. This attitude rose even though the philosopher
Among all those authors of prose who are justified in laying claim to a place in the ranks of German classics, none breathes the spirit of free progress more than Georg Forster.[89]
Some interest in Forster's life and revolutionary actions was revived in the context of the liberal sentiments leading up to the
The ethnographical items collected by Georg and Johann Reinhold Forster are now presented as the Cook-Forster-Sammlung (Cook–Forster Collection) in the Sammlung für Völkerkunde anthropological collection in Göttingen.[95] Another collection of items collected by the Forsters is on display at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford.[96]
Works
- A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5 (1777) Internet Archive scans: Vol. I and II; modern publication with commentary: (preview)
- Characteres generum plantarum, quas in Itinere ad Insulas Maris Australis, Collegerunt, Descripserunt, Delinearunt, annis MDCCLXXII-MDCCLXXV Joannes Reinoldus Forster et Georgius Forster (1775/76), archive.org
- De Plantis Esculentis Insularum Oceani Australis Commentatio Botanica (1786) available online at Project Gutenberg
- Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus (1786) available online at Project Gutenberg and Biodiversity Heritage Library (DOI:10.5962/bhl.title.10725) [1]
- Essays on moral and natural geography, natural history and philosophy (1789–97)
- Views of the Lower Rhine, Brabant, Flanders (three volumes, 1791–94)
- Georg Forsters Werke, Sämtliche Schriften, Tagebücher, Briefe, Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, G. Steiner et al. Berlin: Akademie 1958
- Werke in vier Bänden, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Leipzig: Insel 1965. ASIN: B00307GDQ0
- Reise um die Welt, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1983. ISBN 3-458-32457-7
- Ansichten vom Niederrhein, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1989. ISBN 3-458-32836-X
- Georg Forster, Briefe an Ernst Friedrich Hector Falcke. Neu aufgefundene Forsteriana aus der Gold- und Rosenkreuzerzeit, Michael Ewert, Hermann Schüttler (editors). Georg-Forster-Studien Beiheft 4. Kassel: Kassel University Press 2009. ISBN 978-3-89958-485-1
See also
- Category:Taxa named by Georg Forster
- European and American voyages of scientific exploration
- List of important publications in anthropology
Notes
- ^ Forster was baptised "Johann George Adam Forster", with the English spelling "George", widely used in the Danzig area at the time,[1] possibly chosen commemorating the family's ancestors from Yorkshire.[2] The German form of his name is also common in English (for example, Thomas P. Saine's English-language biography is titled "Georg Forster"),[3] which helps to distinguish him from George Forster, a contemporaneous English traveller.[4]
- ^ Some sources indicate that the birth took place in the rectory of Hochzeit, a village very close to Nassenhuben on the other side of the Motława river.[8]
- ^ Some variants of the date of birth exist in the literature, with 26 November common in earlier literature.[11][12] The baptism registries of Nassenhuben and of St Peter and Paul, Gdańsk list 27 November as date of birth and 5 December as date of baptism.[13][14] The date of 27 November is claimed by both father and son;[15] for example, Reinhold's diary entry for 27 November 1772 starts "This day was George's birthday & we were all very happy."[16]
References
- ^ Gordon 1975, p. 9.
- ^ Thomas & Berghof 2000, p. 425.
- ^ Saine 1972.
- ^ Rosove 2015.
- ^ Daum 2019b, pp. 19–21, 43.
- ^ Alexander von Humboldt in Kosmos (1874), quoted in Jovanović, Lazar, 2020. “The Cosmopolitan Circumnavigator of the South Seas: A Biography of Georg Forster”, in Bérose - Encyclopédie internationale des histoires de l'anthropologie, Paris.
- ^ a b Thomas & Berghof 2000, p. xix.
- ^ a b Hoare 1976, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Enzensberger 1996, p. 10.
- ^ Uhlig 2004, p. 18.
- ^ Saine 1972, p. 18.
- ^ Hoare 1976, p. 18.
- ^ Strehlke 1861, pp. 201–203.
- ^ Enzensberger 1996, p. 15.
- ^ Uhlig 2004, p. 353.
- ^ Forster 1982, p. 184.
- ^ Hoare 1976, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Uhlig 2004, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Hoare 1976, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Hoare 1976, p. 31.
- ^ a b Uhlig 2004, p. 26.
- ^ Hoare 1976, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Hoare 1976, pp. 33–36.
- ^ Uhlig 2004, p. 27.
- ^ Hoare 1976, p. 36.
- ^ Gordon 1975, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Uhlig 2004, p. 28.
- ^ Uhlig 2004, p. 29.
- ^ Hoare 1976, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Hoare 1976, p. 52.
- ^ Steiner 1977, p. 12.
- ^ Hoare 1976, p. 67.
- ^ Hoare 1976, pp. 68–69.
- ^ a b Aulie 1999a.
- ^ Thomas & Berghof 2000, p. xxii.
- ^ Daum 2019a.
- ^ Ackerknecht 1955, pp. 85–86.
- ^ Ackerknecht 1955, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Forster, Georg. A Voyage Round the World, Book II, Chapter VIII
- ^ Thomas & Berghof 2000, pp. xxii–xxvi.
- ^ Saine 1972, p. 22.
- ^ Smith 1990, p. 218.
- ^ Thomas & Berghof 2000, pp. xiii–xiv.
- ^ Ruth P. Dawson, “Navigating Gender: Georg Forster in the Pacific and Emilie von Berlepsch in Scotland.“ In: Weimar Classicism, ed. David Gallagher. Lampeter, Wales: Edwin Mellen Press, 2011. 39-64.
- ^ Gray, Sally Hatch (2012). "Disinterested Pleasure and Aesthetic Autonomy in Georg Forster's Voyage 'round the World". Open Inquiry Archive. 1 (5). Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ "Fellows of the Royal Society – F". Royal Society. Archived from the original on 8 October 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
- ^ Uhlig 2004, p. 75.
- ^ Horton, Scott (13 April 2008). "Georg Forster's Recollection of Benjamin Franklin". Harper's Magazine. Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
- ^ Saine 1972, p. 27.
- OCLC 173842524.
- ^ Saine 1972, p. 33.
- ^ Thomas & Berghof 2000, p. xx.
- ^ Reintjes 1953, p. 50.
- ^ Saine 1972, pp. 43–48.
- ^ Aulie, Richard P. (1999). "On the Continent". The Voyages of Captain James Cook. Captain Cook Study Unit. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
- ISBN 3-86110-332-X.
- ^ King, Robert J. (2008). "The Mulovsky expedition and Catherine II's North Pacific empire". Australian Slavonic and East European Studies. 21 (1/2): 101–126. Archived from the original on 25 October 2009.
- ^ Saine 1972, p. 59.
- ^ King, Robert J. (2008). "The Call of the South Seas: Georg Forster and the expeditions to the Pacific of Lapérouse, Mulovsky and Malaspina". Georg-Forster-Studien. XIII.
- ^ Sprengel, Matthias Christian (2008) [1787]. "German text (Google Books)". Neuholland und die brittische Colonie in Botany-Bay [New Holland and the British Colony at Botany Bay]. Translated by Robert J. King. Australasian Hydrographic Society. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008.
- ^ Ackerknecht 1955, p. 85.
- ^ Saine 1972, p. 103.
- ISBN 978-1-57958-423-8.
- ^ Schweigard, Jörg (2001). "Freiheit oder Tod!" [Liberty or Death!]. Die Zeit (in German) (29). Archived from the original on 5 September 2005. Retrieved 30 May 2006.
- ^ Harpprecht, Das Abenteuer der Freiheit, p. 33
- ^ Lepenies, Wolf (17 May 2010). "Freiheit, das Riesenkind" [Freedom, the giant child]. Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
- ^ "The Mainz Republic". World History at KMLA (WHKLMA). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
- ^ New International Encyclopedia(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
- ^ a b Saine 1972, p. 154.
- ^ Saine 1972, p. 152.
- ^ Reintjes 1953, p. 136.
- ^ a b Schell, Christa (26 November 2004). Die Revolution ist ein Orkan [The Revolution is a Hurricane] (radio script (RTF)) (in German). Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ "Portrait of Dr Johann Reinhold Forster and his son George Forster, c. 1780". National Portrait Gallery. portrait.gov.au.
- ISBN 978-1-4985-5615-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-2009-0.
- ^ Forster, Johann Georg (1958). Steiner, Gerhard (ed.). Georg Forsters Werke, Sämtliche Schriften, Tagebücher, Briefe [Georg Forster's works, all writings, diaries, letters] (in German). Vol. II. Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. pp. 13–14.
- S2CID 59415888. Archived from the original(PDF) on 28 February 2008.
- ^ Lawaty, Andreas (2003). ""Polnische Wirtschaft" und "deutsche Ordnung": Nachbarbilder und ihr Eigenleben". In Oestreich, Bernhard (ed.). Der Fremde, Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu Aspekten von Fremdheit [The Stranger, Interdisciplinary Contributions to Aspects of Foreignness] (in German). Peter Lang Verlag. pp. 156–166.
- ^ Krause, Hans-Thomas (1981). "Georg Forster und Polen". Georg Forster (1754–1794). Ein Leben für den wissenschaftlichen und politischen Fortschritt [Georg Forster (1754–1794). A Life of Scientific and Political Progress]. Wissenschaftliche Beiträge der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg (in German). pp. 79–85.
- ^ "Books and Periodicals Received: "Czarna legenda Polski: Obraz Polski i Polaków w Prusach 1772–1815"". The Sarmatian Review. XXII (3). September 2002. Archived from the original on 20 September 2005. Retrieved 1 September 2005.
- ^ Bömelburg, Hans-Jürgen (1993). "Georg Forster und das negative deutsche Polenbild. Ein Kosmopolit als Architekt von nationalen Feindbildern?" [Georg Forster and the negative German image of Poland. A cosmopolitan as an architect of national bogeymen?]. Mainzer Geschichtsblätter (in German). 8: 79–90.
- ISBN 0-521-39802-9.
- ISBN 3-447-03877-2.
- ^ a b c Salmonowicz, Stanisław (1987). "Jerzy Forster a narodziny stereotypu Polaka w Niemczech XVIII/XIX wieku". Zapiski Historyczne (in Polish). 52 (4): 135–147.
*Salmonowicz, Stanisław (1988). "Georg Forster und sein Polenbild: Kosmopolitismus und nationales Stereotyp" [Georg Forster and his image of Poland: cosmopolitanism and national stereotype]. Medizenhistorisches Journal (in German). 23 (3–4): 277–290. - ^ Stasiewski, Bernhard (1941). ""Polnische Wirtschaft" und Johann Georg Forster, eine wortgeschichtliche Studie" ["Polish economy" and Johann Georg Forster, a word historical study]. Deutsche Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift im Wartheland (in German). 2 (3/4): 207–216.
- ^ S2CID 143853614.
- ^ Arlidge, Allan (2005). "Cook As A Commander – Cook and His Supernumeraries". Cook's Log. 28 (1). Captain Cook Society: 5. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
- OCLC 749967908.
- ^ Schlegel, Friedrich. Kritische Schriften, ed. W. Rasch, 2nd ed., Munich: Hanser 1964, translated by T. Saine in the preface to Georg Forster
- ^ Saine 1972, pp. 14–15.
- ISBN 90-5183-292-3.
- from the original on 12 May 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ "Georg Forster Research Fellowship". Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023.
- ^ Bast, Bianca (31 July 2000). "Georg Forster – Die Wiederentdeckung eines Genies" [Georg Forster – The Rediscovery of a Genius] (in German). uni-protokolle.de. Archived from the original on 14 May 2005. Retrieved 29 May 2006.
- ^ Witzel, Frank; Riechel, Andreas. "Ethnographical Collection of the University of Göttingen". Uni-goettingen.de. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
- doi:10.1093/jhc/12.2.177. Archived from the originalon 8 May 2015.
- ^ International Plant Names Index. G.Forst.
Sources
- Ackerknecht, Erwin H. (June 1955). "George Forster, Alexander von Humboldt, and Ethnology". S2CID 26981757.
- Aulie, Richard P. (1999). "The Forsters at Home". The Voyages of Captain James Cook. Captain Cook Study Unit. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
- Daum, Andreas (2019). "German Naturalists in the Pacific around 1800: Entanglement, Autonomy, and a Transnational Culture of Expertise". In Berghoff, Hartmut (ed.). Explorations and Entanglements: Germans in Pacific Worlds from the Early Modern Period to World War I. Berghahn Books. pp. 79–102.
- ISBN 978-3-406-73436-6.
- Enzensberger, Ulrich (1996). Georg Forster: ein Leben in Scherben (in German). Eichborn. ISBN 978-3-8218-4139-7.
- Forster, Johann Reinhold (1982). Hoare, Michael E. (ed.). The "Resolution" journal of Johann Reinhold Forster, 1772–1775 Vol. 2. Hakluyt Society. OCLC 58633015.
- Gordon, Joseph Stuart (1975). Reinhold and Georg Forster in England, 1766–1780 (Thesis). Ann Arbor: Duke University. OCLC 732713365.
- Hoare, Michael Edward (1976). The Tactless Philosopher: Johann Reinhold Forster (1729–98). Hawthorne Press. ISBN 978-0-7256-0121-8.
- Rosove, Michael H. (2015). "The folio issues of the Forsters' Characteres Generum Plantarum (1775 and 1776): a census of copies". Polar Record. 51 (6): 611–623. S2CID 129922206.
- ISBN 0-8057-2316-1.
- Smith, Alexander (1990). Explorers of the Amazon. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76337-4.
- Steiner, Gerhard (1977). Georg Forster (in German). Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler. OCLC 462099778.
- Strehlke, F. (1861). "Georg Forster's Geburtsort". Neue Preußische Provinzialblätter. 3 Folge. 8: 189–212.
- Thomas, Nicholas; Berghof, Oliver, eds. (2000). A Voyage Round the World. Forster, Georg. University of Hawai'i Press. JSTOR j.ctvvn739.
- Uhlig, Ludwig (2004). Georg Forster: Lebensabenteuer eines gelehrten Weltbürgers (1754–1794) (in German). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 107. ISBN 978-3-525-36731-5.
- Jovanović, Lazar, (2020). “The Cosmopolitan Circumnavigator of the South Seas: A Biography of Georg Forster”, in BEROSE – International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology, Paris.
- Reintjes, Heinrich (1953). Weltreise nach Deutschland (in German). Düsseldorf: Progress-Verlag.
External links
- The Forster Collection at the Pitt Rivers Museum
- Georg Forster society in Kassel (in German)
- Letter recommending Georg Forster to the Royal Society (archived link, 21 October 2006)
- Biography at the Australian Dictionary of Biography
- Works by Georg Forster at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Georg Forster at Internet Archive
- Works by Georg Forster at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Resources related to research : BEROSE – International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology. "Forster, Georg (1754–1794)", Paris, 2020. (ISSN 2648-2770)